Nootropics, popularly referred to as "smart drugs", "smart nutrients", "cognitive enhancers" and "brain enhancers", are substances which claim to boost human cognitive abilities (the functions and capacities of the brain). The word nootropic was coined in 1964 by the Romanian Dr. Corneliu E. Giurgea, derived from the Greek words noos, or "mind," and tropein meaning "to bend/turn". Typically, nootropics are alleged to work by increasing the brain's supply of neurochemicals (neurotransmitters, enzymes, and hormones), by improving the brain's oxygen supply, or by stimulating nerve growth. This article is about modern humans. ... Cognitive The scientific study of how people obtain, retrieve, store and manipulate information. ... For other uses, see Brain (disambiguation). ... Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate electrical signals between a presynaptic and a postsynaptic neuron. ... Neuraminidase ribbon diagram An enzyme (in Greek en = in and zyme = blend) is a protein, or protein complex, that catalyzes a chemical reaction and also controls the 3D orientation of the catalyzed substrates. ... Hormone is also the NATO reporting name for the Soviet/Russian Kamov Ka-25 military helicopter. ... General Name, symbol, number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series nonmetals, chalcogens Group, period, block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless (gas) pale blue (liquid) Standard atomic weight 15. ...

Most alleged nootropic substances are nutrients or plant components (herbs, roots, beans, bark, etc.), available over the counter at health food and grocery stores, and are used as nutritional supplements. Some nootropics are drugs, used to treat people with cognitive learning difficulties, neural degradation (Alzheimer's disease or Parkinson's disease), and for cases of oxygen deficit to prevent hypoxia. These drugs have a variety of human enhancement applications as well, are marketed heavily on the World Wide Web, and are used by many people in personal cognitive enhancement regimens.^{[citation needed]} This article is about the plants used in cooking and medicine. ... For other uses, see Root (disambiguation). ... This article is on the plant. ... For other meanings of bark, see Bark (disambiguation). ... Over-the-counter (OTC) drugs are medicines that may be sold without a prescription, in contrast to prescription drugs. ... Healthful eating is the act of following a balanced nutritional diet. ... ... Hypoxia is a pathological condition in which the body as a whole (generalised hypoxia) or region of the body (tissue hypoxia) is deprived of adequate oxygen supply. ... Human enhancement describes any attempt, whether temporary or permanent, to overcome the current limitations of human cognitive and physical abilities, whether through natural or artificial means. ... WWWs historical logo designed by Robert Cailliau The World Wide Web (commonly shortened to the Web) is a system of interlinked, hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. ...

While scientific studies support some of the claimed benefits, it is worth noting that many of the claims attributed to most nootropics have not been formally tested.

General strategies

Neurotransmitter support - supplying the body with the precursors and cofactors it needs to produce neurotransmitters. Chemical structure of D-aspartic acid, a common amino acid neurotransmitter. ... In chemistry a precursor is a compound that participates in the chemical reaction that produces another compound. ... A cofactor is any substance that needs to be present in addition to an enzyme to catalyze a certain reaction. ...

Note that cardiovascular exercise performed on a regular basis also has nootropic effects, by increasing the body's capacity to supply brain cells with oxygen. Aerobic exercise is a type of exercise in which muscles draw on oxygen in the blood as well as fats and glucose, that increase cardiovascular endurance. ...

Nootropic substances

Nootropic drugs are generally only available by prescription or through personal importation. The other nootropic substances listed below are either nutritional supplements or plant components, and are generally available over the counter at health food and grocery stores. The term "drug" here is used as a legal designation, and does not indicate greater efficacy. With nootropics, the effects, effectiveness, and potency differ from substance to substance and from individual to individual. See the substance descriptions below for more detail. Efficacy is the ability to produce a desired amount of a desired effect. ...

Replenishing and increasing neurotransmitters

Thinking is a biologically demanding task. It involves the firing of neurons, which requires ample neurotransmitters, and even though these are reuseable to some extent, they do get depleted. Depletion of neurotransmitters generally results in reduced mental performance, which may include difficulty concentrating, slowed reasoning, decreased learning efficiency, impaired recall, reduced coordination, lowered moods, inability to cope, increased response times, and mental fatigue. This also generally increases the likelihood of human error on tasks and activities performed. Stress causes neurotransmitters to be depleted even faster. The brain's neurotransmitters need to be replenished frequently, made by the body from substances ingested in the diet. Maintaining neurochemicals at optimal levels has a corresponding effect on brain performance, supporting improved mental agility and stamina, even beyond the individual's normal limits. Personification of thought (Greek Εννοια) in Celsus Library in Ephesos, Turkey Thought or thinking is a mental process which allows beings to model the world, and so to deal with it effectively according to their goals, plans, ends and desires. ... Neurons (also called nerve cells) are the primary cells of the nervous system. ... For other uses, see Mind (disambiguation). ... This article is about psychological concept of attention. ... Learning is the acquisition and development of memories and behaviors, including skills, knowledge, understanding, values, and wisdom. ... Recollection is the retrieval of memory. ... A mood is a relatively lasting emotional or affective state. ... In psychology, coping is the process of managing taxing circumstances, expending effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems, and seeking to master, minimize, reduce or tolerate stress or conflict. ... In medical terms, stress is the disruption of homeostasis through physical or psychological stimuli. ...

As the brain ages, its ability to produce and maintain youthful levels of neurotransmitters declines.^[1] Thus, the theory is that providing the brain with ample raw materials necessary to make neurotransmitters can restore them to more youthful levels and thus help maintain cognitive function at vigorous youthful levels as well.

Cholinergics

Cholinergics are substances that affect the neurotransmitter acetylcholine or the components of the nervous system that use acetylcholine. Acetylcholine facilitates memory, concentration, focus, and high-order thought processes (abstract thought, calculation, innovation, etc.). Increasing the availability of this neurotransmitter in the brain may improve these functions and increase the duration in which they may be engaged without slowing down or stopping. Oversupplying the brain with acetylcholine may have the opposite effect, temporarily reducing rather than improving mental performance. Cholinergic nootropics include acetylcholine precursors and cofactors, and acetylcholinesterase inhibitors: A synapse is cholinergic if it uses acetylcholine as its neurotransmitter. ... Acetylcholine Acetylcholinesterase An acetylcholinesterase inhibitor or anti-cholinesterase is a chemical that inhibits the cholinesterase enzyme from breaking down acetylcholine, so increasing both the level and duration of action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. ...

• Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR) - Amino acid. Precursor of acetylcholine (donating the acetyl portion to the acetylcholine molecule). It is synergistic with lipoic acid.
• Centrophenoxine (Lucidril) - Drug. Cholinergic agent, enhances color perception^{[citation needed]}.
• Choline - precursor to acetylcholine (an essential component of the acetylcholine molecule).
  • Alpha-GPC (L-alpha glycerylphosphorylcholine, Choline alfoscerate) - most effective choline precursor, readily crosses the blood-brain barrier.
  • CDP-Choline (Cytidine Diphosphate Choline) - choline precursor, tends to be less expensive and similar in effect to Alpha GPC.
  • Choline bitartrate - precursor of acetylcholine, anti-depressant.
  • Choline citrate - precursor of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, anti-depressant.
• DMAE - approved treatment for ADD/ADHD^{[citation needed]}, precursor of acetylcholine, cholinergic agent, removes lipofuscin from the brain, anti-depressant.
• Galantamine - acetylcholinesterase inhibitor made from chemical synthesis or extract from plants such as Red Spider Lily (Lycoris radiata).
• Huperzine A - potent acetylcholinesterase inhibitor derived from Chinese club-moss.
• Lecithin - contains phosphatidylcholine, precursor of acetylcholine.
• Pyrrolidone derivatives:
  • Piracetam (Nootropil) - Prescription drug (in Europe). The original (first),^[2] and most commonly taken^[3][2] nootropic drug. It is a cholinergic agent, synergistic with DMAE, centrophenoxine, choline, and Hydergine. Increases brain cell metabolism and energy levels,^[4][2] and speeds up interhemispheric flow of information (left-right brain hemisphere communication). Increases alertness,^[5] improves concentration, and enhances memory. Protects neurons from hypoxia,^[2] and stimulates growth of acetylcholine receptors. May also cause nerves to regenerate. Piracetam markedly decreases the formation of neuronal lipofuscin.^[6] It improves posture in elderly people.^[7] It is not regulated in the US.
  • Aniracetam - Drug. Analog of piracetam, and 4 to 8 times more potent. Like piracetam, aniracetam protects against some memory impairing chemicals, such as diethyldithiocarbamate and clonidine.^[8] Also like piracetam, aniracetam may enhance memory in aging adults by increasing levels of brain biogenic monoamines, which are beneficial to learning and memory.^[1] Both racetams have possible therapeutic use in treating fetal alcohol syndrome.^[9] Aniracetam increases vigilance^[5]. Aniracetam has shown to positively potentiate AMPA receptors.
  • Etiracetam - It increases vigilance.^[5]
  • Nefiracetam - Drug. Analog of piracetam, and facilitates hippocampal neurotransmission.^[10]
  • Oxiracetam - Drug. Analog of piracetam, and 2 to 4 times stronger. Improves memory, concentration, and vigilance. When fed to pregnant rats, the offspring of those rats were more intelligent than the offspring of rats fed a saline solution placebo.
  • Pramiracetam - Drug. Fifteen times stronger than piracetam^{[citation needed]}, of which it is an analog.
• Vitamin B5 - cofactor in the conversion of choline into acetylcholine, cholinergic agent, increases stamina (including mental stamina).

Excess acetylcholine is considered by many to be potentially harmful; see cholinesterase inhibitor. Acetyl-L-carnitine or ALCAR, is an acetylated form of L-carnitine. ... Lipoic acid, also known as α-lipoic acid (alpha lipoic acid) or thioctic acid, has formula C8H14S2O2 and systematic name 5-(1,2-dithiolan-3-yl)pentanoic acid. ... Categories: Medicine stubs | Nootropics ... Choline is an organic compound, classified as an essential nutrient and usually grouped within the Vitamin B complex. ... Choline alfoscerate (or glycerylphosphorylcholine) is a parasympathomimetic. ... Citicoline (INN, also known as cytidine diphosphate choline and cytidine 5-diphosphocholine) is a psychostimulant/nootropic. ... Choline is an organic compound, classified as an essential nutrient and usually grouped within the Vitamin B complex. ... Choline is an organic compound, classified as an essential nutrient and usually grouped within the Vitamin B complex. ... DMAE (dimethylaminoethanol, deanol), chemically 2-(dimethylamino)ethanol, (CH3)2NCH2CH2OH, is chemical compound related to choline. ... Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) previously known as Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD), is generally considered to be a developmental disorder, largely neurological in nature, affecting about 5% of the worlds population. ... A synapse is cholinergic if it uses acetylcholine as its neurotransmitter. ... Lipofuscin is the name given to brown pigment granules composed of lipid-containing residues of lysosomal digestion. ... Galantamine (trade name Razadyne®) is a medication used in the treatment of Alzheimers disease. ... Huperzine A, is a naturally occurring sesquiterpene alkaloid found in the extracts of the firmoss Huperzia serrata. ... Lecithin is mostly a mixture of glycolipids, triglycerides, and phospholipids (e. ... Lecithin, also known as Phosphatidylcholine Lecithin is usually used as synonym for phosphatidylcholine, a phospholipid which is the major component of a phosphatide fraction which may be isolated from either egg yolk (in Greek lekithos - λεκιθος), or soy beans. ... Piracetam (brand name: Nootropil®, Myocalm®), is a nootropic, (though it is only called so by off-label users, see As a nootropic below). ... A prescription drug is a licensed medicine that is regulated by legislation to require a prescription before it can be obtained. ... Excellent description of Hydergine at: http://www. ... Alertness is the the process of paying close and continuous attention. ... Aniracetam (Draganon®, Sarpul®, Ampamet®) is a nootropic drug of the racetam family. ... Fetal alcohol syndrome or FAS is a disorder of permanent birth defects that occurs in the offspring of women who drink alcohol during pregnancy. ... Vigilance is the act of watching for something to happen, of watching for danger. ... AMPA Glutamic acid The α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4- propionic acid receptor (also known as AMPA receptor, AMPAR, or quisqualate receptor) is a non-NMDA-type ionotropic transmembrane receptor for glutamate that mediates fast synaptic transmission in the central nervous system (CNS). ... Categories: Stub | Substances of the piracetam group ... Categories: Stub | Substances of the piracetam group ... Oxiracetam (2-(4-hydroxy-2-oxopyrrolidin-1-yl)acetamide) is a nootropic. ... Pramiracetam (amacetam, CI 879) is a nootropic derived from piracetam, but is more potent (lower dosage is used). ... Pantothenic acid, also called vitamin B5, is an antioxidant water-soluble vitamin needed to break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. ... Endurance, or stamina, is the act of sustaining prolonged stressful effort. ... A cholinesterase inhibitor or anticholinesterase is a chemical that inhibits a cholinesterase enzyme from breaking down acetylcholine, so increasing both the level and duration of action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. ...

Dopaminergics

Dopaminergics are substances that affect the neurotransmitter dopamine or the components of the nervous system that use dopamine. Dopamine is produced in the synthesis of all catecholamine neurotransmitters, and is the rate limiting step for this synthesis. Dopaminergic nootropics include dopamine precursors and cofactors, and dopamine reuptake inhibitors: Dopaminergic means related to the neurotransmitter dopamine. A synapse is dopaminergic if it uses dopamine as its neurotransmitter. ... For other uses, see Dopamine (disambiguation). ... tyrosine is the precursor of catecholamines epinephrine norepinephrine dopamine Synthesis Catecholamines are chemical compounds derived from the amino acid tyrosine containing catechol and amine groups. ... Dopamine reuptake inhibitors are compounds that increase amounts of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain by inhibiting its reuptake at synapses. ...

• Mucuna pruriens - Seed powder contains high concentrations of levodopa (L-dopa), a direct precursor of the neurotransmitter dopamine.
• L-dopa - Prescription drug. Precursor to the neurotransmitter dopamine, anti-depressant.
• Phenylalanine (requires Vitamin B6 and Vitamin C) - Essential amino acid. Precursor to dopamine, anti-depressant, sleep reducer.
• Theanine - Found in tea. Increases serotonin and dopamine levels in the brain. Increases alpha-wave based alert relaxation.
• Tyrosine (requires Vitamin B6 and Vitamin C) - Amino acid. Precursor to dopamine, anti-depressant, sleep reducer.
• Vitamin C- improves cardiovascular elasticity and integrity, membrane stabilizer and major anti-oxidant (protects brain cells and prevents brain cell death), cofactor in the production of the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin.
• Vitamin B6 - co-factor used by the body to produce dopamine.
• Yohimbe - Bark. Boosts dopamine levels as much as 80%^{[citation needed]}, though how it does this is not yet understood. Aphrodisiac. Yohimbe poses some health risks through its side-effects: it is a neuro-paralytic which slows down breathing and induces acidosis, some symptoms of which are malaise, nausea, and vomiting. Contraindicated for users of megadoses of acidic vitamins or nutrients.
• Deprenyl - Inhibits MAO B (an enzyme that breaks down dopamine) thus raising dopamine by partially inhibiting its breakdown.
• Tolcapone - Inhibits COMT (an enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine) and increases performance in tasks depending on working memory in individuals with the val/val and val/met genotype of the val158Met polymorphism of the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene, while decreasing it in presence of the met/met version. Tolcapone presents the risk of deadly side effects.

Binomial name Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Mucuna pruriens (syn. ... // Therapeutic use L-DOPA is used to replace dopamine lost in Parkinsons disease because dopamine itself cannot cross the blood-brain barrierwhere its precursor can. ... Phenyl alanine is an α-amino acid with the formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2C6H5. ... Pyridoxine Pyridoxal phosphate Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble vitamin. ... This article is about the nutrient. ... An essential amino acid or indispensable amino acid is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo by the organism (usually referring to humans), and therefore must be supplied in the diet. ... Theanine is an amino acid which is a deriviative of glutamine. ... Tyrosine (from the Greek tyros, meaning cheese, as it was first discovered in 1846 by German chemist Justus von Liebig in the protein casein from cheese[1][2]), 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, or 2-amino-3(4-hydroxyphenyl)-propanoic acid, is one of the 20 amino acids that are used by cells... This article is about the class of chemicals. ... This article is about the nutrient. ... Serotonin (pronounced ) (5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) and enterochromaffin cells in the gastrointestinal tract of animals including humans. ... Pyridoxine Pyridoxal phosphate Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble vitamin. ... Yohimbine, also known under the outdated names quebrachin, aphrodin, corynine, yohimvetol, and hydroergotocin, is the principal alkaloid of the bark of the West-African tree Pausinystalia yohimbe Pierre (formerly Corynanthe yohimbe), family Rubiaceae (Madder family). ... Acidosis is an increased acidity (i. ... Selegiline/l-Deprenyl Selegiline (l-deprenyl, Eldepryl® or Anipryl® [veterinary]) is a drug used for the treatment of early-stage Parkinsons disease and senile dementia. ... Tolcapone, an inhibitor of catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), is used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease as an adjunct to levodopa/carbidopa therapy. ... Catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT) (EC 2. ... Working memory is a theoretical framework within cognitive psychology that refers to the structures and processes used for temporarily storing and manipulating information. ...

Serotonergics

Serotonergics are substances that affect the neurotransmitter serotonin or the components of the nervous system that use serotonin. Serotonergic nootropics include serotonin precursors and cofactors, and serotonin reuptake inhibitors: Serotonergic means related to, capable of producing, altering, or releasing serotonin, a neurotransmitter, and can refer to the following classes of chemicals: Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor - A common class of serotonergic antidepressants Noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressant - Another class of serotonergic antidepressants serotonergic psychedelics - The serotonergic hallucinogenic drugs This is... Serotonin (pronounced ) (5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) and enterochromaffin cells in the gastrointestinal tract of animals including humans. ... Serotonin Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of antidepressants used in the treatment of depression, anxiety disorders and some personality disorders. ...

• 5-HTP - more bioavailable form of tryptophan, precursor to the neurotransmitter serotonin, promotes relaxed poise and sound sleep^{[citation needed]}.
• Griffonia simplicifolia a natural source of 5-HTP (an alternative in countries where 5-HTP not legal, freely available.)
• Tryptophan (requires Vitamin B6 and Vitamin C) - Essential amino acid. Precursor to serotonin, found in high concentration in bananas and poultry (especially turkey), also in milk, promotes relaxed poise and sound sleep.
• 5HT_2A agonists such as LSD and 2C-T-7 have been shown to produce nootropic effects when used at a dose much lower than a hallucinogenic dose. (e.g. 10 μg for LSD and 1 mg 2C-T-7, 1/25 of a normal recreational dose )
• SSRIs - Class of antidepressants that increase serotonin levels in the brain by inhibiting its reuptake. Have also been shown to promote Neurogenesis in the hippocampus.

5-HTP (5-Hydroxy-tryptophan) is decarboxylated to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT) by the enzyme aromatic-L-amino-acid decarboxylase. ... Tryptophan is an essential amino acid involved in human nutrition. ... Griffonia Simplicifolia is an African plant from which the herbal medication 5-HTP is often developed. ... 5-HTP (5-Hydroxy-tryptophan) is decarboxylated to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT) by the enzyme aromatic-L-amino-acid decarboxylase. ... Tryptophan is an essential amino acid involved in human nutrition. ... Lysergic acid diethylamide, commonly called LSD, LSD-25, or acid. ... 2C-T-7 is a psychedelic phenethylamine and is sometimes used as an entheogen. ... SSRI is an acronym that stands for several things: It is a class of antidepressants called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor SSRI also is used as the stock symbol for Silver Standard Resources Inc. ... Neurogenesis (birth of neurons) is the process by which neurons are created. ...

Anti-depression, adaptogenic and mood stabilization

Depression and depressed mood negatively affect cognitive performance. Feelings of sadness, guilt, helplessness, hopelessness, anxiety, and fear caused by depression detract from productive thought, while apathy (which is also induced by depression) is the lack of motivation and driving moods (like curiosity, interest, determination, etc.) Other symptoms include disturbed sleep patterns, mental fatigue and loss of energy, trouble concentrating or making decisions, and a generalized slowing and obtunding of cognition, including memory. Obviously, removing these effects improves intelligence and mental performance, and therefore, counteracting and preventing depression are effective nootropic strategies. There is a high correlation between depression and a reduction or depletion of neurotransmitters (dopamine, acetylcholine, and serotonin) in the brain, therefore it is no surprise that increasing the brain's supply of neurotransmitters alleviates (or at least reduces the symptoms of) most depressions. Stress is another major factor in neurotransmitter depletion, being both a cause and effect of it (creating a vicious downward spiral), therefore stress management and anti-stress substances are also very useful nootropic strategies. On the Threshold of Eternity. ... In everyday language depression refers to any downturn in mood, which may be relatively transitory and perhaps due to something trivial. ... what up?? Anxiety is a physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components (Seligman, Walker & Rosenhan, 2001). ... A cluttered environment with too many tasks can lead to stress. ...

All of the "nergics" listed above have been found to increase stress tolerance and alleviate depression (by replenishing or increasing the brain's supply of specific neurotransmitters)^{[citation needed]}, especially when used in precursor/co-factor combinations^{[citation needed]}.

Below are additional more nootropics which affect mood and stress:

• Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) - Root. Also known as Indian ginseng. Adaptogen used as a tonic to normalize body processes and reduce stress and anxiety.
• Inositol - Is a B-vitamin like substance with anti-anxiety effects. It is believed to produce its anti-anxiety effects by improving the binding of gabaergics to GABA_A receptors. Inositol is a sugar, and is therefore an alternative energy source for brain and muscle tissues. It produces a sugar high without a sugar low, making it especially suited for sweetening tea (instead of sugar). It is also a membrane stabilizer which can strengthen (and therefore help protect) neurons.
• Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis) - Herb. Anti-depressant.
• Rhodiola Rosea - Herb. Adaptogen; elevates mood, alleviates depression. Promotes mental energy and stamina, reduces fatigue.
• St John's Wort - Herb. The active components: hypericin and hyperforin, are clinically indicated to be effective in cases of mild to moderate depression.
• Ginseng, Siberian (Eleutherococcus senticosus) - Root. Anti-anxiety adaptogen that normalizes physical stress and mental consequences.
• Selegiline (Deprenyl) - Along with Piracetam and Meclofenoxate, Deprenyl decreases the amount of lipofuscin pigment and ceroid pigment accumulations in the brain by improving cellular recycling activities.^[11] Therefore, these nootropics may slow age-related diseases in the brain.
• Sutherlandia frutescens - Herb. Adaptogen, blood detoxifier.
• Tea - Herb. Contains theophylline and theanine. Increases alpha-wave based alert relaxation (relieves stress).
• Theanine - Amino acid. Found in tea. Increases serotonin and dopamine levels in the brain. Increases alpha-wave based alert relaxation.
• Vasopressin - Drug. Memory hormone produced by the pituitary gland which improves both memory encoding and recall. Rapidly counters chronic apathy syndrome and drug-induced vasopressin depletion.
• Nicotinic acid (vitamin B3) - Essential nutrient. Mild enhancer of concentration and memory. Vasodilator - Mood stabilizer, with a powerful anti-anxiety effect — perhaps the best and most immediate stress reliever available (note that other forms of vitamin B do not have this effect). Side effects: gastric upset (which is easily prevented and relieved with antacids), reduced blood pressure and flushing of the skin (caused by vasodilation), and itchy sensation in the skin caused by histamine release.

Binomial name Withania somnifera L. Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera), also known as Indian ginseng, Winter cherry, Ajagandha, Kanaje Hindi and Samm Al Ferakh, is a plant in Solanaceae or nightshade family. ... The word adaptogen is used by herbalists to refer to a natural herb product that increases the bodys resistance to stresses such as trauma, anxiety and bodily fatigue. ... Inositol, (of which the most prominent naturally-occurring form is myo-inositol, cis-1,2,3,5-trans-4,6-cyclohexanehexol), is a carbocyclic polyol that plays an important role as the structural basis for a number of secondary messengers in eukaryotic cells, including inositol phosphates, phosphatidylinositol (PI) and phosphatidylinositol... Gamma-aminobutyric acid (usually abbreviated to GABA) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter found in the nervous systems of widely divergent species. ... The GABA receptors are a group of receptors with γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) as their endogenous ligand. ... Binomial name Melissa officinalis Linnaeus Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis), not to be confused with bee balm, Monarda species, is a perennial herb in the mint family Lamiaceae, native to southern Europe and the Mediterranean region. ... Binomial name L. Synonyms Sedum rosea (L.) Scop. ... Binomial name Hypericum perforatum L. St Johns wort (IPA pronunciation: , rhyming with hurt, or ) used alone refers to the species Hypericum perforatum, also known as Klamath weed or Goat weed, but, with qualifiers, is used to refer to any species of the genus Hypericum. ... Binomial name Eleutherococcus senticosus Rupr. ... Binomial name Rupr. ... Selegiline (l-deprenyl, Eldepryl® or Anipryl® [veterinary]) is a drug used for the treatment of early-stage Parkinsons disease and senile dementia. ... Sutherlandia frutescens is regarded as the most profound and multi-purpose of the medicinal plants in Southern Africa. ... For other uses, see Tea (disambiguation). ... Theophylline is a methylxanthine drug used in therapy for respiratory diseases such as COPD or asthma under a variety of brand names. ... Theanine is an amino acid which is a deriviative of glutamine. ... Arginine vasopressin (AVP), also known as argipressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH), is a human hormone that is released when the body is low on water; it causes the kidneys to conserve water, but not salt, by concentrating the urine and reducing urine volume. ... Arginine vasopressin (AVP), also known as argipressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH), is a human hormone that is released when the body is low on water; it causes the kidneys to conserve water, but not salt, by concentrating the urine and reducing urine volume. ... The pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea that sits in a small, bony cavity (sella turcica) covered by a dural fold (sellar diaphragm) at the base of the brain. ... Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid or vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin whose derivatives such as NADH play essential roles in energy metabolism in the living cell. ... The blood vessels are part of the circulatory system and function to transport blood throughout the body. ...

Brain energy and improved oxygen supply

• Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR) - Amino acid. Transports fatty acids through cellular membranes and cytosol into cells' mitochondria, where the fats undergo oxidation to produce ATP, the universal energy molecule. Synergistic with lipoic acid.
• Chromium- stabilises blood sugar levels promoting concentration.
• Coenzyme q-10 syn. Ubiquinone - increases oxygen transport through the mitochondria of the cells. Appears to slow age-related dementia^{[citation needed]}.
• Creatine - increases brain energy levels via ATP production.
• Inositol -
• Lipoic acid - synergistic with Acetyl-L-carnitine.
• Piracetam - improves alertness, blood flow, oxygen supply, and stroke recovery.
• Pyritinol (Enerbol) - Drug. Enhances oxygen and glucose uptake in the brain, and allows glucose to pass more easily through the blood-brain barrier. It is also a powerful anti-oxidant which scavenges hydroxyl radicals created in the very processes it is involved in.
• Vinpocetine - micro-circulation enhancer, improves oxygen supply to brain cells.

This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... Adenosine 5-triphosphate (ATP) is a multifunctional nucleotide that is most important as a molecular currency of intracellular energy transfer. ... Lipoic acid, also known as α-lipoic acid (alpha lipoic acid) or thioctic acid, has formula C8H14S2O2 and systematic name 5-(1,2-dithiolan-3-yl)pentanoic acid. ... General Name, symbol, number chromium, Cr, 24 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 6, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Standard atomic weight 51. ... Coenzyme Q (CoQ), also known as ubiquinone or ubiquinol, is a biologically active quinone with an isoprenoid side chain, related in structure to vitamin K and vitamin E. // History Coenzyme Q was first discovered in 1957 by professor F. L. Crane and colleagues at the University of Wisconsin Enzyme Institute. ... For other uses, see Dementia (disambiguation). ... For the use of creatine to enhance athletic performance, please see Creatine supplements. ... Inositol, (of which the most prominent naturally-occurring form is myo-inositol, cis-1,2,3,5-trans-4,6-cyclohexanehexol), is a carbocyclic polyol that plays an important role as the structural basis for a number of secondary messengers in eukaryotic cells, including inositol phosphates, phosphatidylinositol (PI) and phosphatidylinositol... Lipoic acid, also known as α-lipoic acid (alpha lipoic acid) or thioctic acid, has formula C8H14S2O2 and systematic name 5-(1,2-dithiolan-3-yl)pentanoic acid. ... Piracetam (brand name: Nootropil®, Myocalm®), is a nootropic, (though it is only called so by off-label users, see As a nootropic below). ... Nootropics are drugs that are used to enhance mental performance in healthy individuals. ... // Hydroxyl group The term hydroxyl group is used to describe the functional group -OH when it is a substituent in an organic compound. ... Vinpocetine (brand names: Cavinton, Intelectol; chemical name: ethyl apovincaminate) is a semisynthetic derivative of vincamine, which is extracted from the periwinkle plant. ...

Mental agility, concentration, stamina, and focus

• Adrafinil (Olmifon) - Drug.
• Caffeine - improves concentration, idea production, but hinders memory encoding. Also produces the jitters. Caffeine is the most widely used psychoactive substance in the world, and may be susceptible to strong levels of tolerance.
• Coffee - Bean. Contains caffeine; brewed coffee is high in antioxidants.
• Nicergoline - Drug. Nicergoline is an ergoloid mesylate derivative used to treat senile dementia. It has also been found to increase mental agility and enhance clarity and perception. It increases vigilance.^[5] Increases arterial flow and use of oxygen and glucose in the brain.
• Nicotine - stimulus barrier (aids in concentration). Stimulus barrier rebound effect (an unpleasant side effect).
• Cocaine - Drug.
• Methylphenidate (Ritalin) - Drug
• Dextroamphetamine - (Adderall, Dexedrine) - Drug.
• Modafinil - (Provigil) - Drug.
• Piracetam - improves alertness, socialization, and co-operation in the brain impaired from age, dementia, and reduced blood flow.
• Phenibut -
• Theophylline -
• Amphetamine -
• Carphedon (Phenotropil) -

Adrafinil chemical structure Adrafinil is a mild central nervous system stimulant drug used to relieve excessive sleepiness and inattention in elderly patients. ... Caffeine is a xanthine alkaloid compound that acts as a stimulant in humans. ... It has been suggested that toleration be merged into this article or section. ... For the several U.S. counties named Coffee, see Coffee County. ... An antioxidant is a chemical that prevents the oxidation of other chemicals. ... Nicergoline is an ergoloid mesylate derivative used to treat senile dementia. ... This article is about the chemical compound. ... Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. ... Vitamin R redirects here. ... Dextroamphetamine is a powerful psychostimulant which produces increased wakefulness, energy and self-confidence in association with decreased fatigue and appetite. ... Modafinil is a eugeroic drug generally prescribed to treat narcolepsy, made by the pharmaceutical company Cephalon Inc. ... Piracetam (brand name: Nootropil®, Myocalm®), is a nootropic, (though it is only called so by off-label users, see As a nootropic below). ... Beta-phenyl-gamma-aminobutyric acid, better known as Phenibut or less commonly Fenibut or Phenybut, is a neuropsychotropic drug, derived from the neurotransmitter GABA that is capable of passing the blood brain barrier. ... Theophylline is a methylxanthine drug used in therapy for respiratory diseases such as COPD or asthma under a variety of brand names. ... Amphetamine or Amfetamine(Alpha-Methyl-PHenEThylAMINE), also known as beta-phenyl-isopropylamine and benzedrine, is a prescription stimulant commonly used to treat Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults and children. ... Carphedon was developed in Russia and is claimed to increase physical stamina along with improved tolerance to cold, its also used for amnesia treatment. ...

Purported memory enhancement and learning improvement

All of the "nergics" listed above are purported to improve memory (encoding and recall), As do all nootropics which improve general brain performance in categories such as the brain energy and oxygen supply, and nerve growth stimulation and protection. Other agents purported to have these specific benefits are mentioned in their own sections.

Other nootropics with specific effects on memory encoding and recall include:

• Bacopa monniera (Brahmi) - Herb. Elevates curiosity, enhances memory and concentration.^[12] Brahmi also protects against amnesia inducing chemicals such as scopolamine or loss of memory due to electro convulsive shocks.^[12] It is a traditional ayurvedic medicine.
• Piracetam - improves memory, Alzheimer's, dementia, dyslexia and Down's syndrome
• Rosemary - Herb. Rosemary has a very old, albeit unverified, reputation for improving memory.
• Vasopressin - Hormone, prescription drug.
• Dextroamphetamine- Adderall, Dexedrine.^[13]

Binomial name Bacopa monnieri L. Pennell Bacopa monnieri is a perennial, creeping herb whose habitat includes wetlands and muddy shores. ... Ayurveda (आयुर्वेद Sanskrit: ayu—life; veda—knowledge of) or ayurvedic medicine is a more than 2,000 year old comprehensive system of medicine based on a holistic approach rooted in Vedic culture. ... Piracetam (brand name: Nootropil®, Myocalm®), is a nootropic, (though it is only called so by off-label users, see As a nootropic below). ... This article is about developmental dyslexia. ... For other uses, see Rosemary (disambiguation). ... Arginine vasopressin (AVP), also known as argipressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH), is a human hormone that is released when the body is low on water; it causes the kidneys to conserve water, but not salt, by concentrating the urine and reducing urine volume. ... Dextroamphetamine is a powerful psychostimulant which produces increased wakefulness, energy and self-confidence in association with decreased fatigue and appetite. ...

Nerve growth stimulation and brain cell protection

• Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR) - Amino acid. Inhibits lipofuscin formation.
• Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi) - Herb. Improves protein synthesis in brain cell repair and new dendritic growth.
• Selegiline (Deprenyl) - Drug. Brain cell protectant, delays senescence of brain cells, proven to increase maximum life span in laboratory rats.
• Ergoloid mesylates (Hydergine) - Drug. Mimics nerve growth factor (NGF), and is a powerful anti-oxidant capable of delaying brain death in cases of heart failure and stroke by several minutes with regular use. It increases vigilance.^[5]
• Idebenone - stimulates nerve growth, and has same effects as Coenzyme q-10 - boosters claim that CoQ10 has "harmful side-effects", a claim which has not been demonstrated in published peer-reviewed studies.^{[citation needed]}
• Inositol - Membrane stabilizer. Strengthens neurons, making them less susceptible to damage.
• Pyritinol (Enerbol) - Drug. Powerful anti-oxidant which scavenges hydroxyl radicals. Also enhances oxygen and glucose uptake in the brain, and allows glucose to pass more easily through the blood-brain barrier.^{[citation needed]} Improves general brain function.^{[citation needed]}
• Rasagiline (Azilect) - Drug. Treats Parkinson’s disease either as monotherapy (by itself) or in addition to levodopa therapy. Promotes increased and sustained levels of dopamine by selectively inhibiting an enzyme, monoamine oxidase-B.
• Vitamin C - Membrane stabilizer, involved in collagen synthesis. Strengthens neurons^{[citation needed]}, making them less susceptible to damage^{[citation needed]}. Vitamin C is also a co-factor in the brain's production of dopamine.

This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... Lipofuscin is the name given to brown pigment granules composed of lipid-containing residues of lysosomal digestion. ... Binomial name Bacopa monnieri L. Pennell Water Hyssop (Bacopa monnieri) is a perennial, creeping herb, also known as brahmi (note. ... Selegiline (l-deprenyl, Eldepryl® or Anipryl® [veterinary]) is a drug used for the treatment of early-stage Parkinsons disease and senile dementia. ... In biology, senescence is the combination of processes of deterioration which follow the period of development of an organism. ... Ergoloid mesylates (Brand names: Hydergine, Gerimal, Niloric) (Chemical name: Dihydroergotoxine mesylate) are dihydrogenated ergot alkaloids used to combat decreased mental function as a result of senility or multiple small strokes. ... Nerve growth factor (NGF), is a small secreted protein which induces the differentiation and survival of particular target neurons (nerve cells). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Inositol, (of which the most prominent naturally-occurring form is myo-inositol, cis-1,2,3,5-trans-4,6-cyclohexanehexol), is a carbocyclic polyol that plays an important role as the structural basis for a number of secondary messengers in eukaryotic cells, including inositol phosphates, phosphatidylinositol (PI) and phosphatidylinositol... Nootropics are drugs that are used to enhance mental performance in healthy individuals. ... Rasagiline (trade name Azilect®) is a irreversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase used as a monotherapy in early Parkinsons disease or as an adjunct therapy in more advanced cases. ... This article is about the nutrient. ... Tropocollagen triple helix. ...

Recreational drugs with purported nootropic effects

See also: Controlled substances act and Misuse of Drugs Act 1971

• Amphetamines (Adderall, Dexedrine) - Schedule II / Class B drugs. Prescribed for attention-deficit disorders, narcolepsy, and certain cases of obesity; and issued as an anti-fatigue pill for pilots in the armed forces. These also heighten alertness, mental focus, vigilance, stamina, and sex drive. They are highly addictive, and have many side effects. Personal importation is prohibited. Using these recreationally or for performance enhancement is illegal in most countries.
• Cannabis is reported to heighten the ability of the senses, as well as heighten alpha wave activity in the brain associated with creativity.
• LSD - Schedule I / Class A drug. At minuscule doses (1 μg) the drug has effects similar to Hydergine^{[citation needed]}. At higher doses, the impact of the senses on one's mind are expanded to such an overwhelming degree that what is being sensed seems qualitatively different. Activity in the Raphe Nuclei and Locus Coeruleus increases dramatically following administration of LSD to produce extremely heightened creativity in many users. This effect on the creative process is a phenomenon that may be due to ascending traffic in the reticular activation system, which can result in stimulus overload.^[14] Also produces hallucinogenic and entheogenic effects at doses as low as 30–40 μg (micrograms), with the likelihood of having a bad trip increasing as dose is increased if these effects are undesired. May also cause cognitive shifts, synesthesia, and flashbacks. The drug sometimes spurs long-term or even permanent changes in a user's personality and life perspective. (For more details, see Albert Hofmann: LSD - My Problem Child.)
• 4-methylaminorex
• Pemoline
• Psilocybin and Psilocin
• MDPV
• Mescaline

The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) was enacted into law by the Congress of the United States as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970. ... The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 is an Act of Parliament, by which the United Kingdom aims to control the possession and supply of numerous drugs and drug-like substances, as listed under the Act, and to enable international co-operation against illegal drug trafficking. ... Amphetamine is a synthetic drug originally developed (and still used) as an appetite suppressant. ... The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) was enacted into law by the Congress of the United States as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970. ... The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 is an Act of Parliament, by which the United Kingdom aims to control the possession and supply of numerous drugs and drug-like substances, as listed under the Act, and to enable international co-operation against illegal drug trafficking. ... Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) previously known as Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD), is generally considered to be a developmental disorder, largely neurological in nature, affecting about 5% of the worlds population. ... For other uses, see Narcolepsy (disambiguation). ... Amphetamine or Amfetamine(Alpha-Methyl-PHenEThylAMINE), also known as beta-phenyl-isopropylamine and benzedrine, is a prescription stimulant commonly used to treat Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults and children. ... Cannabis, also known as marijuana[1] or ganja,[2] is a psychoactive product of the plant Cannabis sativa L. subsp. ... Lysergic acid diethylamide, commonly called LSD, LSD-25, or acid. ... The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) was enacted into law by the Congress of the United States as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970. ... The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 is an Act of Parliament, by which the United Kingdom aims to control the possession and supply of numerous drugs and drug-like substances, as listed under the Act, and to enable international co-operation against illegal drug trafficking. ... The general group of pharmacological agents commonly known as hallucinogens can be divided into three broad categories: psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants. ... This entry covers entheogens in the strict sense of the word (i. ... A psychedelic crisis (known colloquially as a bad trip) is a disturbing or frightening experience associated with use of a hallucinogenic drug such as LSD, salvinorin A, mescaline, or psilocybin. ... A cognitive shift (not to be confused with cognitive-shifting, a general therapy/meditation term) is a psychological phenomenon most often experienced by individuals using psychedelic drugs, or suffering from mental disorders such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder (also known as manic-depressive syndrome). ... Synesthesia (also spelled synæsthesia or synaesthesia, plural synesthesiae or synaesthesiae)—from the Ancient Greek (syn), meaning with, and (aisthēsis), meaning sensation—is a neurologically based phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway. ... Lysergic acid diethylamide, commonly called LSD, LSD-25, or acid. ... 4-Methylaminorex is a stimulant drug of the 2-Amino-5-Aryloxazoline class. ... Pemoline is a medication for Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). ... Psilocybin (also known as psilocybine) is a psychedelic alkaloid of the tryptamine family, found in psilocybin mushrooms. ... Psilocin,(4-HO-DMT) sometimes called psilocine or psilotsin, is a psychedelic (hallucinogenic) mushroom alkaloid. ... This page may meet Wikipedia’s criteria for speedy deletion. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Other nootropics

• Adafenoxate - Has an anti-anxiety effect for rats^[15] and possibly the same for humans.
• Butea frondosa - "The plant Butea frondosa has been indicated in the Indian system of medicine as a plant augmenting memory and as a rejuvenator. ... B. frondosa possesses anti-stress and weak nootropic activity."^[16]
• BMY 21502 - Injured animals treated with BMY-21502 at one week post-injury showed significant improvement in post-injury learning ability compared to injured animals treated with vehicle. Paradoxically, in uninjured control animals BMY-21502 treatment appeared to worsen learning scores. The results of this study indicate that BMY-21502 may be useful for attenuating the dysfunction in learning ability that occurs following TBI.
• Cabergoline (Dostinex) -
• Celastrus panicaltus - Herb.
• Cerebrolysin - A neuroprotective nootropic agent, might affect Alzheimer's disease pathology. Currently in clinical trials
• Clausenamide
• Coluracetam - It may also have potential use in prevention and treatment of ischemic retinopathy and retinal and optic nerve injury.
• Desmopressin (DDAVP) - Drug. Analog of vasopressin (the anti-diuretic and memory hormone)
• DHEA - Hormone created by the adrenal glands; Precursor to Estrogen and Testosterone
• Dostinex -
• Fasoracetam -
• Essential Fatty Acids- Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DPA) are the best known. EPA in particular, has an anti-depressant function and is positively indicated in trials with autism and learning difficulties.
• Fipexide (Vigilor) - It protects against some memory impairing chemicals, such as diethyldithiocarbamate and clonidine.^[8]
• Gerovital H3 -
• Ginkgo biloba - Root. Increases blood flow to the extremities and the brain, nootropic effects are disputed.
• Gotu Kola - Herb and root.
• Meclofenoxate - Has an anti-anxiety effect for rats^[15] and possibly the same for humans. Like Fipexide, it protects against some memory impairing chemicals, such as diethyldithiocarbamate and clonidine.^[8] Like many racetams, it may treat fetal alcohol syndrome.^[9]
• Milacemide - Drug.
• Nimodipine -
• Ondansetron -
• Phenytoin (Dilantin) -
• Phosphatidylserine- reduces age-related memory loss and promotes concentration.
• Picamilon or Pikamilone - Compound of Niacin and GABA. It can pass the blood-brain barrier and increase amount of GABA in the brain.
• Pregnenolone - Hormone; Precursor to DHEA;
• Pyroglutamate -
• Sapunifiram
• Semax - A neuropeptide (stimulator of the nervous system) developed from a short fragment of ACTH, Pro8-Gly9-Pro10 ACTH(4-10). Claims of significant increase in salvation of neurons are made
• Somatotropin -
• Sulbutiamine (Arcalion) - Drug - derivative of thiamine (vitamin B1) that can cross the blood-brain barrier and work as anti-fatique and cognitive support agent.
• Sunifiram
• Unifiram
• Xanthinol -

// Introduction and Phrmacology Cabergoline (brand names Dostinex® and Cabaser®), an ergot-derivative, is a potent dopamine receptor agonist on D2-Receptors. ... Coluracetam is a nootropic. ... Desmopressin (DDAVP®, Stimate®, Minirin®) is a synthetic drug that mimics the action of antidiuretic hormone, also known as arginine vasopressin. ... Arginine vasopressin (AVP), also known as argipressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH), is a human hormone that is released when the body is low on water; it causes the kidneys to conserve water, but not salt, by concentrating the urine and reducing urine volume. ... Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is a natural steroid hormone produced from cholesterol by the adrenal glands. ... Cabergoline (name brands Dostinex and Cabaser) is a dopamine receptor agonist and uncategorized drug which supresses the production of prolactin in pituitary gland. ... Categories: Stub | Substances of the piracetam group ... In chemistry, especially biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid (or organic acid), often with a long aliphatic tail (long chains), either saturated or unsaturated. ... Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA or also icosapentaenoic acid) is an omega-3 fatty acid. ... Docosahexaenoic acid (commonly known as DHA; 22:6(ω-3), all-cis-docosa-4,7,10,13,16,19-hexaenoic acid; trivial name cervonic acid) is an omega-3 essential fatty acid. ... Fipexide is a piperazine derivative drug invented in Italy in 1983. ... Gerovital H3 is a controversial preparation, developed during the 1950s in Romania by Dr. Ana Aslan (1896?–May 20, 1988) It was and is promoted by its advocates as an effective anti-aging treatment. ... Binomial name Ginkgo biloba L. The Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), sometimes also known as the Maidenhair tree, is a unique tree with no living relatives. ... Binomial name Bacopa monnieri L. Pennell Water Hyssop (Bacopa monnieri) is a perennial, creeping herb, also known as brahmi (note. ... Categories: Medicine stubs | Nootropics ... Nimodipine (marketed by Bayer as Nimotop®) is a dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker originally developed for the treatment of high blood pressure. ... Ondansetron (INN) (IPA: ) is a serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonist used mainly to treat nausea and vomiting following chemotherapy. ... Phenytoin sodium (marketed as Dilantin® in the USA and as Epanutin® in the UK, by Parke-Davis, now part of Pfizer) is a commonly used antiepileptic. ... Phosphatidylserine is a phospholipid nutrient found in fish, green leafy vegetables, soybeans and rice, and is essential for the normal functioning of neuronal cell membranes. ... Picamilon is a compound formed by reacting niacin with GABA. It was invented in Russia. ... Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid or vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin whose derivatives such as NADH, NAD, NAD+, and NADP play essential roles in energy metabolism in the living cell and DNA repair. ... Gaba may refer to: Gabâ or gabaa (Philippines), the concept of negative karma of the Cebuano people GABA, the gamma-amino-butyric acid neurotransmitter GABA receptor, in biology, receptors with GABA as their endogenous ligand Gaba 1 to 1, an English conversational school in Japan Marianne Gaba, a US model... The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a membranic structure that acts primarily to protect the brain from chemicals in the blood, while still allowing essential metabolic function. ... Pregnenolone is a steroid hormone involved in the steroidogenesis of progesterone, mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, androgens, and estrogens. ... Pyroglutamate is an uncommon amino acid found in bacteriorhodopsin. ... Growth hormone is a polypeptide hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland which stimulates growth and cell reproduction in humans and other vertebrate animals. ... Sulbutiamine (brand name: Arcalion®) is a precursor to thiamine (i. ... The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a membranic structure that acts primarily to protect the brain from chemicals in the blood, while still allowing essential metabolic function. ...

Brain foods

Some regular food items are rich sources of substances with alleged nootropic benefits:

• Nuts, in particular walnuts, are rich sources of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), a type of omega-3 fatty acid. A mixture of walnuts served with dried fruit pieces is known in some regions as student food (orig. German: Studentenfutter) and is there popularily recommended as a snack for students and other mental workers.
• Oily fish, such as salmon or fresh tuna (not tuna canned in oil) are also good sources of omega-3 fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, whose lack in diet has been associated with increased risk of mental illnesses such as depression, aggressive behavior, schizophrenia, or hyper-activity in children.

Look up nuts in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is about the walnut tree. ... Linolenic acid Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is a polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acid with the molecular formula C18H30O2 and molar mass 278. ... Omega-3 fatty acids are a family of polyunsaturated fatty acids which have in common a carbon-carbon double bond in the ω-3 position. ... Student food is a colloquial term for a snack consisting of a loose mixture of nuts (typically walnuts, cashew nuts, brazilnuts, hazelnuts and almonds) and raisins. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Fish oil. ... For other uses, see Salmon (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Tuna (disambiguation). ... Omega-3 fatty acids are a family of polyunsaturated fatty acids which have in common a carbon-carbon double bond in the ω-3 position. ...

See also

Brain and neurology

A. A schematic view of an idealized action potential illustrates its various phases as the action potential passes a point on a cell membrane. ... One of the key concerns of older adults is experiencing memory loss, especially as it is one of the hallmark symptoms of Alzheimers Disease. ... For other uses, see Brain (disambiguation). ... A diagram showing the CNS: 1. ... Dendrites (from Greek dendron, “tree”) are the branched projections of a neuron that act to conduct the electrical stimulation received from other neural cells to the cell body, or soma, of the neuron from which the dendrites project. ... The human brain controls the central nervous system (CNS), by way of the cranial nerves and spinal cord, the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and regulates virtually all human activity. ... Long-term potentiation is the persistent increase in synaptic strength following high-frequency stimulation of a synapse. ... The Human Nervous System. ... Any projection from the cell body of a neuron can be referred to as a neurite. ... Drawing by Santiago Ramón y Cajal of neurons in the pigeon cerebellum. ... Neuroplasticity challenges the idea that brain functions are fixed in certain locations. ... Drawing of the cells in the chicken cerebellum by S. Ramón y Cajal Neuroscience is a field that is devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system. ... Chemical structure of D-aspartic acid, a common amino acid neurotransmitter. ... Sensory neuroscience is a subfield of neuroscience which tries to understand the behaviour of neurons in sensory systems. ... Illustration of the major elements in a prototypical synapse. ... In neuroscience, synaptic plasticity is the ability of the connection, or synapse, between two neurons to change in strength. ... ...

Thought and thinking (what nootropics are used for)

abstraction in general. ... This article is about psychological concept of attention. ... Attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individuals like or dislike for an item. ... Look up brainstorming in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Look up Cognition in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Cognitive science is usually defined as the scientific study either of mind or of intelligence (e. ... Look up Creativity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... are you kiddin ? i was lookin for it for hours ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Look up decision in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Decision making is the cognitive process of selecting a course of action from among multiple alternatives. ... Eidetic memory, photographic memory, or total recall, is the ability to recall images, sounds, or objects in memory with extreme accuracy and in seemingly abundant volume. ... For other uses, see Emotion (disambiguation). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Emotional Intelligence (EI), often measured as an Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ), describes an ability, capacity, or skill to perceive, assess, and manage the emotions of ones self, of others, and of groups. ... An objective or goal is a personal or organizational desired end point in development. ... IDEA may refer to: Electronic Directory of the European Institutions IDEA League Improvement and Development Agency Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Indian Distance Education Association Integrated Data Environments Australia Intelligent Database Environment for Advanced Applications IntelliJ IDEA - a Java IDE Interactive Database for Energy-efficient Architecture International IDEA (International Institute... Imagination is accepted as the innate ability and process to invent partial or complete personal realms within the mind from elements derived from sense perceptions of the shared world. ... Intelligence is the mental capacity to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend ideas and language, and learn. ... This article is about the psychological process of introspecting. ... Lateral thinking is a term coined by Edward de Bono, a Maltese psychologist, physician and writer. ... Learning is the acquisition and development of memories and behaviors, including skills, knowledge, understanding, values, and wisdom. ... For other uses, see Memory (disambiguation). ... The memory-prediction framework is a theory of brain function that was created by Jeff Hawkins and described in his book On Intelligence. ... Mental calculation is the practice of doing mathematical calculations using only the human brain, with no help from any computing devices. ... The phrase minds eye refers to the human ability for visual perception, imagination, visualization, and memory, or, in other words, ones ability to see things with the mind. ... A mindset, in decision theory and general systems theory, refers to a set of assumptions, methods or notations held by one or more people or groups of people which is so established that it creates a powerful incentive within these people or groups to continue to adopt or accept prior... A mood is a relatively lasting emotional or affective state. ... Look up Motivation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information. ... Personality psychology is a branch of psychology which studies personality and individual differences. ... Picture Thinking, Visual Thinking or Visual/Spatial Learner is the phenomenon of thinking through visual processing, where most people would think with linguistic or verbal processing. ... Problem shaping means revising a question so that the solution process can begin or continue. ... Problem solving forms part of thinking. ... For other uses, see Reason (disambiguation). ... Recollection is the retrieval of memory. ... The Thinker by Auguste Rodin: An artists impression of Homo sapiens Human self-reflection is the basis of philosophy and is present from the earliest historical records. ... Personification of thought (Greek Εννοια) in Celsus Library in Ephesos, Turkey Thought or thinking is a mental process which allows beings to model the world, and so to deal with it effectively according to their goals, plans, ends and desires. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Spatial-temporal reasoning. ...

Health

what up?? Anxiety is a physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components (Seligman, Walker & Rosenhan, 2001). ... Cognitive Psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. ... On the Threshold of Eternity. ... Severe confusion of a degree considered pathological usually refers to loss of orientation (ability to place oneself correctly in the world by time, location, and personal identity), and often memory (ability to correctly recall previous events or learn new materal). ... The subject of this article may not satisfy the notability guideline or one of the following guidelines for inclusion on Wikipedia: Biographies, Books, Companies, Fiction, Music, Neologisms, Numbers, Web content, or several proposals for new guidelines. ... For other meanings, see Drug (disambiguation). ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... A prescription drug is a licensed medicine that is regulated by legislation to require a prescription before it can be obtained. ... For the general concept, see Prohibitionism. ... An assortment of psychoactive drugs A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a chemical substance that acts primarily upon the central nervous system where it alters brain function, resulting in temporary changes in perception, mood, consciousness and behavior. ... Psychedelic drugs are psychoactive drugs whose primary action is to alter the thought processes of the brain. ... Human enhancement describes any attempt, whether temporary or permanent, to overcome the current limitations of human cognitive and physical abilities, whether through natural or artificial means. ... Ergogenic aids are any external influences which can positively affect physical or mental performance. ... Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans, by slowing down or reversing the processes of aging. ... Neurodegenerative disease (Greek νέυρο-, néuro-, nerval and Latin dēgenerāre, to decline or to worsen) is a condition in which cells of the brain and spinal cord are lost. ... The Nutrition Facts table indicates the amounts of nutrients which experts recommend you limit or consume in adequate amounts. ... In medical terms, stress is the disruption of homeostasis through physical or psychological stimuli. ... A cluttered environment with too many tasks can lead to stress. ...

References

Year 1996 (MCMXCVI) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar). ... is the 289th day of the year (290th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ...

External links

• Society for the Advancement of Cosmetic Pharmacotherapy
• BetterBrain Nootropics Index
• Business Week Online - "I Can't Remember" September 1, 2003
• CerebralHealth.com
• Slashdot Cognitive Enhancement Drugs
• HedWeb
• Brain Foods
• List of Nootropic drugs at Erowid.org
• The Scientist - Seeking Smart Drugs by Eugene Russo October 28, 2002