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Narratology, a term coined by Professor Edward Maloney from Georgetown University, is the theory and study of narrative and narrative structure and ([1]) the way they affect our perception. The term was coined in French, narratologie, by Tzvetan Todorov in his 1969 Grammaire du Décaméron (Prince [2]). Its objects of study are all kinds of narrated texts - both fiction (literature, poetry, etc.) and non-fiction (historiography, academic publishing, etc.), - as well as the dramatic structures, plot devices, characterization, settings, genres, and literary techniques. Usually, the term "narratology" is used in connection with fictional texts, which doesn't imply that non-fictional texts or other forms of fiction (theater, films, electronic entertainment, etc.) are not included in the studies' field. Image File history File links Information_icon. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Narrative structure is generally described as the structural framework that underlies the order and manner in which a narrative is presented to a reader, listener, or viewer. ... Tzvetan Todorov (Bulgarian: ) (born on March 1, 1939 in Sofia) is a Franco-Bulgarian philosopher. ... The term text has multiple meanings depending on the context of its use: In language, text is a broad term for something that contains words to express something. ... The Three Graces, here in a painting by Sandro Botticelli, were the goddesses of charm, beauty, nature, human creativity and fertility in Greek mythology. ... Old book bindings at the Merton College library. ... The Chinese poem Quatrain on Heavenly Mountain by Emperor Gaozong (Song Dynasty) Poetry (from the Greek , poiesis, making or creating) is a form of art in which language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its ostensible meaning. ... Non-fiction is an account or representation of a subject which is presented as fact. ... Historiography is the study of the practice of history. ... Academic publishing describes a system of publishing that is necessary in order for academic scholars to review work and make it available for a wider audience. ... For other usages see Theatre (disambiguation) Theater (American English) or Theatre (British English and widespread usage among theatre professionals in the US) is that branch of the performing arts concerned with acting out stories in front of an audience using combinations of speech, gesture, music, dance, sound and spectacle &#8212... Film is a term that encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as the field in general. ... Computer and video games - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ...

Important subtopics of narratology are the studies of continuity, verisimilitude, and suspension of disbelief (see also Fourth wall). In fiction, continuity is consistency of the characteristics of persons, plot, objects, places and events seen by the reader or viewer. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Suspension of disbelief refers to the willingness of a reader or viewer to accept the premises of a work of fiction, even if they are fantastic or impossible. ... The fourth wall is the imaginary invisible wall at the front of the stage in a proscenium theatre, through which the audience sees the action in the world of the play. ...

Forms of narrative

Any story can be split into several parts, according to the will of the author. This is often done for marketing purposes, but may as well be a literary device used to create a specific structure of the narrative. Common forms are: Wikibooks has more about this subject: Marketing Marketing is a social and managerial function that attempts to create, expand and maintain a collection of customers. ...

• Single work (e.g. a novel, a short story, a poem, a film, a theater or radio play) is by far the most common used technique, when a story is told in one piece, without splitting it up.
• Duology or dilogy is a set of two works. It is less common than single stories and trilogies.
• Trilogy is a set of three works. Trilogy is arguably the second most popular narrative form.
• Tetralogy is a set of four works. (This is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a Quadrilogy, particularly in film; it can, borrowing musical terminology, also be referred to as a quartet).
• Pentalogy or quintology is a set of five works.
• Serial is a narrative form that consists of a potentially unlimited number of works. This form is rather uncommon in literature (except historically, for example Charles Dickens famously published his, and other authors' works, in serial format) but is often used in television and comics. It is also known as episodic media.

Within stories split into multiple parts, following terms are commonly used: A novel (from French nouvelle Italian novella, new) is an extended, generally fictional narrative in prose. ... This article is in need of attention. ... Poetry (ancient Greek: poieo = create) is an art form in which human language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or instead of, its notional and semantic content. ... Film is a term that encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as the field in general. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Radio drama, which had its greatest popularity in the U. S. and in most other countries before the widespread access to television programming, depends on dialogue, music and sound effects to help the listener imagine the story in her or his minds eye--in this sense, it resembles reading... Duology also known as dilogy is a set of three works of art, usually literature or film, that develop a single theme over two works. ... Duology also known as dilogy is a set of three works of art, usually literature or film, that develop a single theme over two works. ... A trilogy is a set of three works of art, usually literature or film, that are connected and can generally be seen as a single work as well as three individual ones. ... A tetralogy is a compound work that is made up of four (numerical prefix tetra-) distinct works. ... A tetralogy is a compound work that is made up of four (numerical prefix tetra-) distinct works. ... A pentalogy is a series of five related works of art, a lesser-known relative of the words trilogy (three) and tetralogy (four). ... a quintology is like a trilogy but five instead of three. ... It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ... Old book bindings at the Merton College library. ... Dickens redirects here. ... Comics (or, less commonly, sequential art) is a form of visual art consisting of images which are commonly combined with text, often in the form of speech balloons or image captions. ...

• Sequel is a story that succeeds a previously published one, being set in the same fictional universe but later in time. A sequel usually continues the original storyline.
  • Spiritual sequel is a story that indirectly succeeds a previously published one. Often it is set in another universe, another time and features another cast of characters, but expresses the same ideas and concepts as the original work.
• Prequel is a story that happens in the same universe as some previously published one but earlier in time. The main function of a prequel is usually to explain the original story (which continues the storyline of the prequel itself). Prequels have to be carefully written so they do not go against things that have happened in the first book.
• Interquel is a story chronologically set during the interval between two previously published works, being the sequel to former work and the prequel to the latter work, which was previously the sequel to the former.
• A midquel^{[citation needed]} or inquel^{[citation needed]} is a story set in the same time and universe as a previously published work (rather than between two previous works). An example would be C.S. Lewis' The Horse and his Boy, which is set during the last chapter of The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe.

A sequel is a work of fiction in literature, film, and other creative works that is produced after a completed work, and is set in the same universe but at a later time. ... A spiritual sequel or spiritual successor is a sequel or successor to a computer or video game, movie, comic or even a stage play. ... Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace is one of the best-known prequels. ... Clive Staples Lewis (November 29, 1898 – November 22, 1963), commonly referred to as C. S. Lewis, was an author and scholar. ... The Horse and His Boy is a novel by C.S. Lewis. ... The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe is a fantasy novel for children by C. S. Lewis. ...

Narrative techniques

When describing a narrative, one of the most important aspects is the point of view from which the story is told. Hence, there are two basic forms of narrative - diegesis and mimesis: the former means telling a story instead of showing a series of events, and the latter - the opposite of that. Simply put, diegesis implies that there is a personified narrator and mimesis - that a story is told by an omniscient incorporeal entity. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... According to Gerald Prince in A Dictionary of Narratology, diegesis is (1) The (fictional) world in which the situations and events narrated occur; (2) Telling, recounting, as opposed to showing, enacting. ... Mimesis (μίμησις from μιμεîσθαι) in its simplest context means imitation or representation in Greek. ...

Another important aspect of a narrative is its syntagmatic structure or "the mode of time-awareness which listeners are placed": simple narrative, epic or lyrical. See the main article for more information. Syntagmatic stucture (structure of syntax) is the mode of time-awareness which listeners are placed such as narrative, epic, or lyrical. Narrative structures feature a realistic temporal flow guided by tension and relaxation, privelege difference, and as diagesis, songs speak to or address us by organizing a particular stretch of... The epic is a broadly defined genre of poetry, and one of the major forms of narrative literature. ... The term lyrical may mean: Lyrics, or words in songs Lyrical dance, a style of dancing Emotional, expressing strong feelings For other uses see, Lyric Poetry, Lyrical Abstraction, Lyco Art or Lyrical Conceptualism Category: ... Syntagmatic stucture (structure of syntax) is the mode of time-awareness which listeners are placed such as narrative, epic, or lyrical. Narrative structures feature a realistic temporal flow guided by tension and relaxation, privelege difference, and as diagesis, songs speak to or address us by organizing a particular stretch of...

More specific narrative techniques include:

• False document is a form of narrative that presents a story as a record in some nonexistent document (diary, letter, video tape, etc.). This is used to create a sense of authenticity beyond the normally expected suspension of disbelief in the reader/audience, as well as sometimes, to put a certain distance between the text and its author. This technique can be applied to either an entire story or a single part of it (a story within a story).
  • Epistolary novel is a novel written in form of a series of post letters (usually, from the protagonist to his/her friend, acquaintance or relative). It is usually a subform of the false document technique.
• Frame story is a narrative technique in which a main story is composed, at least in part, for the purpose of organizing a set of shorter stories, each of which is a story within a story. The A-Plot, thus, becomes mere a link between countless subplots, which are then the real focus of the narrative.
• Metafiction is a kind of fiction, which self-consciously addresses the devices of fiction, which means that it deliberately denies the suspension of disbelief for itself. In order to constantly remind the reader/audience that they are reading a book or watching a movie, metafiction often employs meta-references.
• Pastiche is a term with a double meaning. On one hand, it may describe a respectful imitation of some other author's style of narrative (as opposed to a parody). On the other, it sometimes stands for a narrative that is "cobbled together" in imitation of several original works.
• Purple prose is a term used to describe passages or, sometimes, entire literary works, written in prose so overly extravagant, ornate or flowery as to break the flow and draw attention to itself.
• Serial is the primary technique used in episodic media (see above). It implies that a story is divided into a number of smaller stories (episodes) but unlike a frame story, a serial may have all episodes bound together into one single A-plot.
• Stream of consciousness is a literary technique, which seeks to describe an individual's point of view by giving the written equivalent of the character's thought processes. The first notable example of an application of this technique has been s.c. Molly Bloom's Soliloquy.

A false document is a form of verisimilitude that attempts to create in the reader (viewer, audience, etc. ... == c programming[[a--203. ... Vintage German letter balance for home use Look up letter in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The video cassette recorder (or VCR, less popularly video tape recorder) is a type of video tape recorder that uses removable cassettes containing magnetic tape to record audio and video from a television broadcast so it can be played back later. ... Look up authenticity, authentic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Titlepage of Aphra Behns Love-Letters (1684) An epistolary novel is written as a series of documents. ... A frame story (also frame tale, frame narrative, etc. ... Metafiction is a type of fiction which self-consciously addresses the devices of fiction. ... The Three Graces, here in a painting by Sandro Botticelli, were the goddesses of charm, beauty, nature, human creativity and fertility in Greek mythology. ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... Parody of Back to the Future In contemporary usage, a parody is a work that imitates another work in order to ridicule, ironically comment on, or poke some affectionate fun at the work itself, the subject of the work, the author or fictional voice of the parody, or another subject. ... A term of literary criticism, purple prose is used to describe passages, or sometimes entire literary works, written in prose so overly extravagant, ornate or flowery as to break the flow and draw attention to itself. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ... In psychology and philosophy stream of consciousness, introduced by William James, is the set of constantly changing inner thoughts and sensations which an individual has while conscious, used as a synonym for stream of thought. ... Personification of thought (Greek Εννοια) in Celsus Library in Ephesos, Turkey Thought or thinking is a mental process which allows beings to model the world, and so to deal with it effectively according to their goals, plans, ends and desires. ... Molly Blooms soliloquy is the final chapter of James Joyces novel Ulysses (often referred to as Penelope, after Mollys mythical counterpart). ...

Point of view

In narratology, point of view describes the role that the narrator (see below) plays in the story. In literature and storytelling, a point of view is the related experience of the narrator — not that of the author. ...

• First-person narrative is a point of view for which the narrator is a part of the story (a character). He or she refers to him-/herself as "I" ("we" in plural). This is a very common technique since it allows inserting more personal feelings and thoughts into the text than others. On the other hand, it is often incapable of giving an objective view on the story.
• Second-person narrative is a point of view within which the narrator is narrating the story to another character through that character's point of view. This character (likely, a protagonist) is referred as "you". This is a rather uncommon technique mostly used in instructions, role-playing games and Choose Your Own Adventure-type books. Examples of its usage in literature include Bright Lights, Big City by Jay McInerney and Despair by Vladimir Nabokov. Together with the first-person narrative, this technique constitutes diegesis.
• Third person limited omniscient is a point of view such that the reader and the writer observe the situation from the outside through the senses and thoughts of a single character, although the focal character may shift throughout the course of any given narrative. This form is a combination of first-person and omniscient narrative and is therefore likely the most frequently used one in fictional texts.
• Omniscient narrator is a point of view similar to third person limited omniscient but unlike it, an omniscient narrator shifts the focal character instantly, without any special events causing the change of the viewpoint. It is also likely to refer to other characters in third person, which means that the narrator himself usually dissolves and ceases to exist as a detectable entity (mimesis).
• Unreliable narrator is a narrator who tells the story from his or her personal point of view but who has flaws or makes mistakes. As a result, such narrator cannot give the entire picture of the story and his or her credibility is often put in question. Generally, all unreliable narrators are telling the story from the first-person perspective.

First-person narrative is a literary technique in which the story is narrated by one or more of the characters, who explicitly refers to him or herself in the first person, that is, I. The narrator is thus directly or indirectly involved in the story being told. ... Second-person narration is a narrative technique in which the protagonist or another main character is referred to by employment of second-person personal pronouns and other kinds of addressing forms, e. ... A role-playing game (RPG, often roleplaying game) is a type of game in which the participants assume the roles of fictional characters and collaboratively create or follow stories. ... The Cave of Time, the first Choose Your Own Adventure book. ... ÜýÝ ... Jay McInerney (born in 1955 in Hartford, Connecticut and christened John Barrett McInerney, Jr. ... Despair was written by Vladimir Nabokov and originally published in Russia as a serial in Sovremennye Zapiski during 1934. ... Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov (Russian: Влади́мир Влади́мирович Набо́ков, pronounced ) (April 22, 1899 [O.S. April 10], Saint Petersburg – July 2, 1977, Montreux) was a Russian-American author. ... In literature, in the third person limited omniscient mode, the reader and writer observe the situation from the outside, standing apart from all characters in the story. ... In literature, a focal character is the character around whom the events of the story revolve. ... In literature, an omniscient narrator is a narrator who appears to know everything about the story being told, including what all the characters are thinking. ... In literature and film, an unreliable narrator (a term coined by Wayne C. Booth in his 1961 book The Rhetoric of Fiction[1]) is a literary device in which the credibility of the narrator, either first-person or third-person, is seriously compromised. ...

Plot structure

The plot (also known as plotline) is the main aspect of any fictional story. It describes a series of events that happens to the characters in a described setting. Ideally, all events should follow logically from each other and be acceptable for the continuity of the story. In larger texts, there are often subplots running simultaneously with the main one. Look up Plot in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Setting in literature is the locale and time that serves as the backdrop to short stories, novels, dramas and screenplays. ... Logic, from Classical Greek λόγος (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, (but coming to mean thought or reason) is the study of criteria for the evaluation of arguments, although the exact definition of logic is a matter of controversy among philosophers. ...

In cinema, a plot is usually presented in the form of a screenplay. A screenplay or script is a blueprint for producing a motion picture. ...

• A-Plot is the term used for the main plotline that binds all other ones, which doesn't necessarily mean that it is the most important one.
• Subplot or side story is a plotline that has no direct connection to the A-Plot, but is important for understanding various aspects of the characters' personalities and the world created by the author. There are several kinds of subplots:
  • Character arc describes the events happening to a (secondary) character, which allows the reader or the audience to learn more about his or her past and background.
  • Story arc is a partial plotline that is typical for episodic storytelling media (e.g. TV series). It describes a series of events that happen to the characters over several episodes, but is not crucial for understanding the events before and after it.
  • Story within a story is a technique used to tell a story during the action of another one (e.g. a character telling an ancient legend). In cinema and TV series, this technique is known as show-within-a-show.

However elaborate and original the stories of the world may be, all of them follow some basic patterns (plots). These were summarized by Georges Polti in his 1868 book The Thirty-Six Dramatic Situations. However, the author also commented, that the number 36 is not necessary right and that his list may well be incomplete or, on contrary, too long. A-Plot is a cinema and television term referring to the plotline that really drives the story. ... A subplot is a series of connected actions within a work of narrative that function separately from the main plot. ... A side story in fiction is a form of narrative that occurs alongside established stories set within a fictional universe. ... A character arc is the status of the character as it unfolds throughout the story, the storyline or series of episodes. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... A television program is the content of television broadcasting. ... A story within a story is a literary device or conceit in which one story is told during the action of another story. ... A show-within-a-show is typically a fictional television show featured within the fictional universe of a real television show. ... A French writer from the mid-19th century, Georges Polti (sometimes George Polti) is best-known today for his list of 36 dramatic situations and for writing Art of Inventing Characters (ASIN: 0899843883, originally Lart dinventer les personnages). ... 1868 (MDCCCLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a leap year starting on Friday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... The Thirty-Six Dramatic Situations is a descriptive list which was created by Georges Polti in 1868 to categorize every dramatic situation which might occur in a story or performance. ...

Other possible plot patterns include:

• Monomyth
• Quest
• Villain of the week (episodic media)

It has been suggested that The Hero s journey (phrase) be merged into this article or section. ... This article is about the word, for other meanings see Quest (disambiguation) A quest is a journey towards a goal with great meaning and is used in mythology and literature as a plot device. ... King Sphinx, an example of a Villain of the Week, from the Power Rangers series Villain of the week (or, depending on genre, monster of the week) is a term that describes the nature of one-use antagonists in episodic fiction, specifically ongoing American genre-based television series. ...

Conflict

A widely accepted theory states that every story evolves around a conflict or several conflicts. These conflicts are not necessarily the ones between people or their interests but follow seven basic patterns: Conflict is a necessary element of fictional literature. ...

• Man vs. Himself
• Man vs. Man
• Man vs. Society
• Man vs. Nature
• Man vs. Supernatural
• Man vs. God
• Man vs. Technology

Of course, these are only the refined basic patterns that may be extremely intertwined in real literature and dramaturgy. Man versus Himself is the theme in literature that places a character against his own will, his own confusion, or his own fears, man versus himself can also be where a character tries to find out who they are or comes to a realization or a change in character. ... Man vs. ... Man vs. ... Man versus Nature is the theme in literature that places a character against forces of nature. ... The theme in literature that places a character against supernatural forces. ... Man vs. ... The theme in literature that places a character against technology. ... Dramaturgy is the art of dramatic composition and the representation of the main elements of drama on the stage. ...

Dramatic structure

Dramatic structure refers to the parts into which a plot of a short story, a novel, a play, a screenplay, or a narrative poem can be divided. Larger texts may contain several simultaneous plots that also follow this structure. The dramatic structure has been described by Gustav Freytag as follows: The term dramatic structure refers to the parts into which a short story, a novel, a play, a screenplay, or a narrative poem can be divided. ... Gustav Freytag. ...

1. Exposition
2. Inciting moment
3. Rising action
4. Climax
5. Peripeteia (turning point)
6. Falling action
7. Denouement (unravelling)

Look up exposition in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In the plot analysis of a typical play, book or film, rising action refers to the dynamic period after the exposition, when conflict has been introduced. ... The climax of a narrative work is its point of highest tension or drama. ... Peripeteia (Greek, ) is a reversal of circumstances, or turning point. ... Freytags Pyramid, which illustrates dramatic structure. ... Denouement, in literature, is the end part of a story after the climax. ...

Episodic media

In episodic media (TV series, comic strips, etc.), special rules for plotlines apply: An episode is to television and radio what a chapter is to a book: a part of a sequence of a body of work. ... A television program is the content of television broadcasting. ... This article is about the comic strip, the sequential art form as published in newspapers and on the Internet. ...

• Episode is a short part of a serial television or radio program, which usually tells a short story either directly connected to the main plotline or being a part of a side story. If one episode is too short to tell the entire story, several of them are connected to a story arc.
• Filler is an episode that has no connection to the ongoing storylines of the series. They are sometimes used to give some background information about the characters or the back-story, but they can also be inserted to increase the running time, which is generally frowned upon.
• Clip show is a filler episode that doesn't have its own storyline but rather consists of many flashbacks on the previous episodes. Such practice saves the producers' money but is generally frowned upon by the audience since it usually doesn't bring anything new to the series. However, clip shows are still quite often used in sitcoms and anime.

TV Show Reference Episode is the word usually used to refer to a part of a serial television or radio program. ... In general, a filler is something that is used to fill gaps. ... In television, a clip show is an episode of a series, usually a sitcom, that consists primarily of excerpts from previous episodes, generally depicted as a sequence of flashbacks given plausibility by a frame tale. ... A sitcom or situation comedy is a genre of comedy performance originally devised for radio but today typically found on television. ... Anime ) (IPA pronunciation: in Japanese, but typically or in English) is an abbreviation of the word animation. Outside Japan, the term most popularly refers to animation originating in Japan. ...

Plot devices

A plot device is an object, a character or a concept introduced into the story by the author to advance its plot. A literary technique is a technique that allows the author to introduce the necessary plot device into the story. These two terms are often (incorrectly) used to describe the same thing. A plot device is a person or an object introduced to a story to affect or advance the plot. ... A Literary technique or literary device may be used by works of literature in order to produce a specific effect on the reader. ...

• Plot twist is a very broad term used to describe any unexpected turn of the story that gives a new view on its entire topic. If a plot twist happens at the end of the story, it is called a twist ending (see below).
• Flashing arrow is a technique used to focus the audience's or the reader's (but not the characters') attention on an object or a location that will be important later in the story. It can be nearly everything - from an unusual camera shot to a changing background music - as long as it stays peripheral (see also Foreshadowing and Flashforward).
• Red herring is a plot device that distracts the reader's or the audience's attention from the plot twists that are really important for the story. This is often done on purpose to maintain tension and uncertainty.
• Deathtrap is a popular plot device that the main villain of the story places in the way of the protagonist in order to kill him (her) and satisfy his own ultimately sadistic desires. A deathtrap is often followed by a typical villain speech and, possibly, a deus ex machina ending.
• Comic book death is a technique commonly used in comic books, when a major character (see below) is killed (or otherwise disappears "for forever") but appears later on. Because of its previous frequent use, nowadays it is seen as something negative.
• Dark and stormy night is a cliché-like opening of horror films and other genre media. It usually includes darkness, violent lightning and a general mood of solitude.

Less common techniques include: A Plot twist is a change (twist) in the direction or expected outcome of the plot of a film or novel. ... This article is becoming very long. ... A flashing arrow is a plot device used in movies to signify some kind of action or situation. ... Elevator music, also known as piped music or Muzak, refers to the gentle, bland arrangements of popular music designed for play in shopping malls, grocery stores, telephone systems (while the caller is on hold), and, of course, elevators. ... In literature, a red herring is a plot device intended to distract the reader from a more important event in the plot, usually a twist ending. ... Suspense or tension is the feeling of uncertainty and interest about the outcome of certain actions an audience perceives in a dramatic work. ... A deathtrap is a literary and dramatic plot device in which a villain, who has captured the hero or another sympathetic character, attempts to use an elaborate and usually sadistic method of murdering him/her. ... One popular concept of the villain, meant to mimic the purposely distinctive visage of villains from silent films of the early 20th century. ... The protagonist or main character is the central figure of a story. ... Flogging demonstration at Folsom Street Fair 2004. ... A deathtrap is a literary and dramatic plot device in which a villain, who has captured the hero or another sympathetic character, attempts to use an elaborate and usually sadistic method of murdering him/her. ... Cover to Uncanny X-Men #136 (August 1980, art by John Byrne), the penultimate issue of the Dark Phoenix saga. ... The phrase, It was a dark and stormy night, made famous by comic strip artist Charles M. Schulz, was originally penned by Victorian novelist Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton to begin his 1830 novel, Paul Clifford. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... DVD cover showing horror characters as depicted by Universal Studios. ... Lightning is an atmospheric discharge of electricity, usually, but not always, during a rain storm. ... Contemplation Solitude (also seclusion, isolation) means lack of contact with other people. ...

• Meta-reference is where the characters display an awareness that they are in a film, television show or book. This is often (but not necessarily) used to breach the fourth wall and create a comic effect. If unintentional, this technique is referred as "breaking character".
• Reverse chronology is a rare technique when the story is told in the reverse order - i.e. the finale at the beginning and the beginning at the end. A somewhat more popular technique is to tell a story in a non-chronological (though not the reverse) order.

Meta-reference, a meta-fiction technique, is a situation in a form of media whereby fictional characters display an awareness that they are in a film, television show or book. ... The fourth wall is the imaginary invisible wall at the front of the stage in a proscenium theatre, through which the audience sees the action in the world of the play. ... Breaking character, or to break character, is a theatrical term used to describe when an actor, while actively performing in character, slips out of character and behaves as his or her actual self. ... Reverse chronology is a method of story-telling whereby the plot is revealed in reverse order. ...

Items

Some items and objects in the story may have a special significance for the plot. These can be divided into several categories:

• Chekhov's gun is an item that is introduced early in the story and plays a crucial role later on. E.g. if a rifle is shown on stage in the first act of a play, in the second or third one, a character will have to fire it.
• MacGuffin is an item of utter importance that advances the story, motivates its characters and stirs audience interest while its nature is never quite explained to the audience or the reader. A similar term is "unexposed content".
• Plot coupon is an object whose possession or use is crucial for resolving the conflict and completing the story. Commonly, it is a supernatural artifact or a superweapon, usually, divided into several parts and scattered all over the world. Locating these parts is often considered a perfect main quest for computer and video games.
  • Plot voucher is an object similar to both plot coupon and Chekhov's gun: it is usually presented to the protagonist at the beginning of the story and plays an important role in the resolving of the conflict, sometimes resulting in a deus ex machina ending.

It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Anton Chekhov. ... A MacGuffin (sometimes McGuffin or Maguffin) is a plot device that motivates the characters and advances the story, but has little other relevance to the story. ... Unexposed contents is a film device originally used primarily in Avant-garde film but that has penetrated into the mainstream during the 1980s and 1990s. ... In narratology, a plot coupon is an object whose possession or use is necessary in order to resolve the conflict upon which the plot hangs. ... Conflict is a necessary element of fictional literature. ... This article is about artifacts in fantasy and roleplaying. ... It has been suggested that Multiplayer Video Games be merged into this article or section. ... In narratology, a plot coupon is an object whose possession or use is necessary in order to resolve the conflict upon which the plot hangs. ...

Visions

To explain character's motives or certain plot twists, an author may allow the characters to share visions of the past or, less commonly, the future with the reader or the audience. These techniques are difficult to realize in a theater due to its technical limitations (though there are exceptions, see Death of a Salesman), but are commonly used in cinema and literature. Motive is a term that turns up in many different forms in the popular psychology of literature, cinema, business and as term of art in law. ... A Plot twist is a change (twist) in the direction or expected outcome of the plot of a film or novel. ... In religion, visions comprise inspirational renderings, generally of a future state and/or of a mythical being, and are believed (by followers of the religion) to come from a deity, directly or indirectly via prophets, and serve to inspire or prod believers as part of a revelation or an epiphany. ... Cover to the Penguin Group edition. ...

• Dream sequence is a series of dreams a character sees which allow him or her to see things that are about to happen, happening at the same time in some other place or have already happened. Dream sequences are among the most commonly used plot devices.
• Flashback is a literary technique that takes the narrative back in time from the point the story has reached. Flashbacks are usually presented as characters' memories and are used to explain their backgrounds and the back-story.
• Racconto is very much like a flashback but is usually somewhat longer and more gradual.
• Flashforward is the opposite of a flashback - taking the narrative forward in time from the point the story has reached. It is used less often than its counterpart and mostly in sci-fi stories to underline their futuristic structure.
• Foreshadowing is a premonition much like a flashforward, but not as explicit. Instead of showing the future, it only hints at it.
• Had I but known is a form of foreshadowing describing the consequences of a mistake a character is about to make.

A dream sequence is a technique used in storytelling, particularly in television and film, to set apart a brief interlude from the main story. ... This article or section is not written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia article. ... In literature and film, a flashback (also called analepsis) takes the narrative back in time from the point the story has reached, to recount events that happened before and give the back-story. ... In narratology, a back-story (also back story or backstory) is the history behind the situation extant at the start of the main story. ... In literature, Racconto and Flashback mean almost the same thing. ... A flashforward (also sometimes known as flash-forward or flash-ahead) in a narrative occurs when one or more scenes representing an event expected, projected or imagined to occur at a time later than the present depiction (see also Glossary: Flashforward). ... Sci-fi is an abbreviation for science fiction. ... Foreshadowing is a literary device in which an author drops subtle hints about plot ys a gun or knife early in the story. ... The word Premonition refers to a situation when future events are foreknown or forecast. ... The phrase had I but known is a rather obvious form of foreshadowing that hints at some looming disaster in which the first person narrator laments his or her course of action which precipitates some or other unfortunate series of action. ...

Finales

Although each story is supposed to be different, there are some standard patterns that its finale may follow: A finale is a closing part, act or movement of a dramatic or musical composition, or more generally any event or procedure with a dramatically concluding effect. ...

• Cliffhanger is an abrupt finale that doesn't really complete the plot and often leaves the main characters in a precarious or difficult situation. Such endings usually hint at a following sequel or are simply there because an author for some reasons couldn't complete his or her story.
• Twist ending is an unexpected finale that gives an entirely new vision on the entire plot. It is a powerful technique but also dangerous for it can easily confuse and repel the audience or the reader.
• Happy ending is a finale when everything ends in the best way for the "good" characters (the hero and the heroine marry, the justice prevails, lost children find their parents, etc.) while all the "bad" villains are punished or killed. Happy ending is very often considered a cliché by the critics.
  • Poetic justice is a type of a happy ending when the virtue is ultimately rewarded and the vice - punished.
• Deus ex machina is a rather illogical finale when a new, unexpected factor (e.g. a god, deus) appears on stage and solves the seemingly hopeless situation. This allows the author to end his or her story the way he or she wanted it to end but doesn't follow the logic and continuity of the story, often challenging the suspension of disbelief in effect.

A cliffhanger or cliffhanger ending is a plot device in which a movie, novel, or other work of fiction contains an abrupt ending, often leaving the main characters in a precarious or difficult situation. ... A sequel is a work of fiction in literature, film, and other creative works that is produced after a completed work, and is set in the same universe but at a later time. ... This article is becoming very long. ... For the slang meaning of happy ending, see here. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Poetic justice is a literary device in which virtue is ultimately rewarded or vice punished, often in modern literature by an ironic twist of fate intimately related to the characters own conduct. ... Spoiler warning: Deus ex machina is a Latin phrase that is used to describe an unexpected, artificial, or improbable character, device, or event introduced suddenly in a work of fiction or drama to resolve a situation or untangle a plot (e. ... Suspension of disbelief refers to the willingness of a reader or viewer to accept the premises of a work of fiction, even if they are fantastic or impossible. ...

Characters

The characters are distinctive personalities who are involved in the events described by the story. One usually differentiates between major (primary) characters and minor (secondary) characters. The former are the heroes of the story around whom the entire plotline evolves while the latter have supporting roles whose function is to provide the main characters with information, material goods, services or whatever they may need in order to advance the plot.

The process of creating a character is called characterization. Characterization is of crucial importance for all major characters, since they must possess a memorable and complex personality to appear interesting and appealing (or repulsive, if it is an antagonist). However, since it is impossible to describe all aspects of a character's personality in a story without sacrificing too much of its other components, the authors usually have to follow the s.c. Iceberg Theory proclaimed by Ernest Hemingway. Characterization is the process of creating characters in fiction, often those who are different from and have different beliefs than the author. ... It is a writing theory form American writer Hemingway If a writer of prose knows enough about what he is writing about he may omit things that will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them. ... Ernest Miller Hemingway (July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American novelist, short-story writer, and journalist. ...

Unlike the major characters, the minor ones are usually not created from scratch but rather picked from a list of the s.c. stock characters (or created by merging them together). These are mostly stereotypical simplifications of human personalities, with a few distinctive features (compared to dozens of the major characters), but considering their usual supporting roles, this is an advantage since both the author and the audience/reader don't spend much time on them anyway. There are, however, some clichés that should better be avoided. A stock character is a fictional character that relies heavily on cultural types or stereotypes for its personality, manner of speech, and other characteristics. ...

In role-playing games, the major characters are usually referred to as player characters (PC) and the minor ones - as non-player characters (NPC). A role-playing game (RPG, often roleplaying game) is a type of game in which the participants assume the roles of fictional characters and collaboratively create or follow stories. ... A player character or playable character (PC) is a fictional character in a game who is controlled or controllable by the player. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Characterization

Every major character of a story normally has his/her own motive (motivation) that drives him/her forward and advances the story. Different motives and interests often cause conflicts between characters and thus create the inciting moment for a plot or subplot. Throughout a story, especially if it is an epic of some kind, the motives of the major characters may change, adding to the complexity of the story and their own personalities. Motive is a term that turns up in many different forms in the popular psychology of literature, cinema, business and as term of art in law. ...

Another common attribute of the primary cast are the s.c. character shields - a plot device that protects them from the misfortunes perilous for minor characters. This can be presented as something paranormal (in fantasy settings), as unusual luck or skill, or simply left unexplained. Character shields are plot devices in films and television shows that prevent important characters from dying or being seriously injured at dramatically inconvenient moments. ... Fantasy is a genre of art that uses magic and other supernatural forms as a primary element of plot, theme, or setting. ... A four leaf clover is often considered to bestow good luck This article is about fortune. ...

The main characters usually follow some basic guidelines:

• Protagonist is a hero or heroine of story, whose progress towards the finale the narrative explicitly follows. The protagonist is usually blessed with all kinds of virtues and despite having many personal problems (which are eventually solved in the progress of the story), stays on the side of "good". "Good" is a very subjective term and usually describes the side the audience is supposed to sympathize with. Longer and epic stories may feature multiple protagonists at once, each with his/her own separate story.
  • Tragic hero is a type of a character (often, a protagonist) whose personality has some tragic flaw (hamartia) that prevents him from being what he wants to be and thus means constant suffering for him. Tragic heroes and heroines are usually the ones the audience/reader sympathizes with the most, once their hamartia (be it a hunchback, own ancestry, lycanthropy, etc.) is revealed. Sometimes, the antagonist can be presented as a tragic hero in order to justify his/her utter virulence. A special case of this type is a Byronic hero.
  • Anti-hero is a type of a protagonist who expresses traits that are more appropriate for an antagonist, but in the end, stands to the cause of "good" (see above). Such protagonists are more common in the contemporary fiction, since they appear more realistic than traditional righteous heroes and thus, more appealing to the audience/reader.
• Antagonist is a hero or heroine of story who actively opposes the protagonist(s) in achieving his/her/their goals or represents an opposing force (an organization, a natural or supernatural force, etc.) in the conflict. Since the protagonist usually stands on the side of "good", the antagonist is always depicted as "evil".
  • Villain is the most stereotypical type of an antagonist, almost a stock character. He/she is usually depicted as an utterly evil person (while the reasons for this are seldom given), not caring for human life or emotion, hating the entire world and aiming to enslave or destroy it. In more elaborate cases, the villain can be depicted as a tragic hero whose actions are an act of revenge or another justified cause (e.g. protection from an even greater evil).
  • Evil twin is a type of an antagonist who is virtually identical to the protagonist, but stands on the opposing side. A conflict between "twins" is usually much more tense and difficult to resolve than usual, but is generally not very common because of its obviousness.
• False protagonist is a character who is introduced as a protagonist at the beginning of the story but removed (normally, killed) halfway through. Another major or minor character, who was also introduced early in the narrative, then takes his/her place and completes the story. This technique is applicable only if the narrative is not very long (a film, a short story, etc.) and has only one protagonist.
• Fictional fictional character is a character that is fictional even in the context of a fictional story. This technique can be used to give a new view on the protagonist's problems, to create a comedic effect, etc.
• Wedge-type characters are minor characters that possess character shields, which allow them to survive mortal dangers just like the major ones, but do not ascend to their primary status. This is an unofficial term, invented after Wedge Antilles.

The protagonist or main character is the central figure of a story. ... From the Greek , in mythology and folklore, a hero (male) or heroine (female) usually fulfills the definitions of what is considered good and noble in the originating culture. ... This article is about the type of character. ... The epic is a broadly defined genre of poetry, and one of the major forms of narrative literature. ... A tragic hero is a protagonist with a tragic flaw, also known as fatal flaw, which eventually leads to his demise. ... Hamartia (Ancient Greek: άμαρτία) is used in Aristotles Poetics, where it is usually translated as tragic mistake or tragic flaw. ... Hunchback may refer to one of the following. ... In folklore, lycanthropy is the ability or power of a human being to undergo transformation into a wolf. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... In literature and film, an anti-hero is a central or supporting character that has some of the personality flaws and ultimate fortune traditionally assigned to villains but nonetheless also have enough heroic qualities or intentions to gain the sympathy of readers or viewers. ... Realism is commonly defined as a concern for fact or reality and rejection of the impractical and visionary. ... An antagonist is a character or group of characters, or, sometimes an institution of a story who represents the opposition against which the heroes and/or protagonists must contend. ... One popular concept of the villain, meant to mimic the purposely distinctive visage of villains from silent films of the early 20th century. ... Revenge or vengeance consists primarily of retaliation against a person or group in response to a perceived wrongdoing. ... Captain Kirk with Spocks evil twin An evil twin is the concept in fiction (especially soap operas, science fiction and fantasy) of someone equal to a character in all respects, except for a radically inverted morality (and often some changes in appearance, stereotypically a goatee for men and a... In film, television, or literature, a false protagonist is a technique for making a scene more jarring or a character more notable. ... This article is in need of attention. ... A fictional fictional character is a kind of metafiction. ... In science fiction and fantasy fandom, the term Wedge has been unofficially adopted to describe minor background characters that survive an entire saga or series without being killed (i. ... Wedge Antilles (b. ...

Stock characters

A stock character is a character that relies heavily on cultural types or stereotypes for its personality, manner of speech, and other characteristics. Stock characters are instantly recognizable to members of a given culture, therefore they are often used during the characterization of minor characters, who don't need an original personality to fulfill their main function - supporting the primary characters. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... Stereotypes are ideas held by some individuals about members of particular groups, based solely on membership in that group. ...

Some typical examples for stock characters are:

• Absent-minded professor
• Bad Fiancé
• Competent Man
• Damsel in distress
• Dumb blonde
• Dark Lord
• Evil genius
• Femme fatale
• Hero
• Mad scientist
• Paladin
• Private investigator

See the article about stock characters for more examples. The absent-minded professor is a stock character of popular fiction usually portrayed as an academic with important information, but whose focus on their learning leads them to ignore their surroundings. ... The Bad Fiancé is a stock character, who is usually a villain. ... The Competent Man is a stock character who can do anything well. ... A poster for The Perils of Pauline (1914). ... The dumb blonde is a stereotype typically applied to women (but may be applied to men) with blonde hair color, which achieved a degree of prominence in popular usage. ... Dr. Evil in Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery, a parody of Ernst Stavro Blofeld. ... This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. ... From the Greek , in mythology and folklore, a hero (male) or heroine (female) usually fulfills the definitions of what is considered good and noble in the originating culture. ... Caucasian, male, aging, crooked teeth, messy hair, lab coat, spectacles/goggles, dramatic posing — one popular stereotype of a mad scientist. ... A paladin (alternatively paladine, also spelled palatine, or Latin palatinus, -i) is any of diverse officials found in numerous countries of medieval and early modern Europe. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ...

Other techniques

• Self-insertion is a literary technique used to intentionally introduce the author into the story as a character. Self-insertion as a major character is generally frowned upon by the critics, but self-insertion as a minor one can be acceptable.
  • Mary Sue is a female character who can be seen as an idealized self-insertion by the author. Unlike conventional self-insertion or author surrogate, an introduction of a Mary Sue is mostly unintentional and she is generally an idealistic, rather than realistic view of the author him- or herself (a male version of Mary Sue is sometimes referred to as Gary Stu). See the main article for detailed explanation.
• Audience surrogate is a character who expresses the questions and confusion of the audience or the reader. This technique frequently used in detective fiction and science fiction. An audience surrogate is not necessary a permanent role.
• Author surrogate is a character who expresses the ideas, questions, personality and morality of the author. Often, the protagonist is an author surrogate (but not a self-insertion) but minor characters can play this role as well.
• Narrator is an entity within a story that tells it to the reader/audience. Sometimes, it is a character within a story, sometimes - an incorporeal omniscient being. Together with the author and the audience (reader), the Narrator is an entity responsible for all kinds of the story-telling. A special type of a narrator is the so called "unreliable narrator" (see above).
• Christ-figure is a literary technique used to insert a character into the story that is in some ways similar to Jesus Christ. This is often a sub-form of the chosen one-technique.

Self-insertion is a literary device in which the real author of a work of fiction appears as a character within that fiction, either overtly or in disguise. ... Mary Sue (or simply Sue) is a pejorative expression for a fictional character who is an idealized stand-in for the author, or for a story with such a character. ... Mary Sue (or simply Sue) is a pejorative expression for a fictional character who is an idealized stand-in for the author, or for a story with such a character. ... In the study of literature, an audience surrogate is a character who expresses the questions and confusion of the reader. ... Basil Rathbone as Sherlock Holmes Detective fiction is a branch of crime fiction that centers upon the investigation of a crime, usually murder, by a detective, either professional or amateur. ... As a literary technique, an author surrogate is a character who expresses the ideas, questions, personality and morality of the author. ... Morality refers to the concept of human ethics which pertains to matters of good and evil —also referred to as right or wrong, used within three contexts: individual conscience; systems of principles and judgments — sometimes called moral values —shared within a cultural, religious, secular, Humanist, or philosophical community; and codes... The Narrator is the entity within a story that tells the story to the reader. ... An author is the person who creates a written work, such as a book, story, article or the like. ... An audience is a group of people who participate in and experience or encounter a work of art, literature, theatre, music or academics in any medium. ... In literature and film, an unreliable narrator (a term coined by Wayne C. Booth in his 1961 book The Rhetoric of Fiction[1]) is a literary device in which the credibility of the narrator, either first-person or third-person, is seriously compromised. ... A Christ-figure is a literary technique that authors use to draw allusions between their characters and the bibilical Jesus Christ. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... Chosen One is the second Hillsong Music album in the Youth Alive series by the Hillsong Church. ...

Continuity

Continuity is a very important aspect of any story. Per definition, it means the consistency of the characteristics of characters, plot, objects, places and events seen by the reader or the audience. To put it simpler, continuity includes everything about the universe where the story takes place - facts, history, common logic, laws of nature, etc. Ideally, these shouldn't contradict themselves. In fiction, continuity is consistency of the characteristics of persons, plot, objects, places and events seen by the reader or viewer. ... The deepest visible-light image of the cosmos, the Hubble Ultra Deep Field. ... HIStory: Past, Present and Future – Book I is a two-disc album by Michael Jackson released in 1995 by the Epic Records division of Sony BMG. The first disc (HIStory Begins) is a fifteen-track greatest hits (later released as Greatest Hits - HIStory Volume I), while the second disc (HIStory... The Laws of Nature are claimed in the United States Declaration of Independence to be the work of the Creator of unalienable rights identified as Natures God. ...

Setting

Setting refers to the set of locations (or the entire world) where the story takes place. Sometimes, this also includes local and world history and the general laws of nature of that world. Setting in literature is the locale and time that serves as the backdrop to short stories, novels, dramas and screenplays. ...

• Ficton is an imaginary world that serves as the setting or backdrop for a story. This term is not very common, since all more or less elaborated fictons hosting multiple stories are referred to as fictional universes. A ficton can be identical to our world (save a few details) or different from it in every aspect - depending on the wishes of the author.
• Fictional universe is an imaginary world that serves as the setting or backdrop for one or (more commonly) multiple works of fiction. Usually, fictional universes are a prerogative of science fiction and fantasy (see also Fantasy world) genres, since any setting that only slightly differs from our can be called and seen as fictional.
  • Canon is an attribute of any fictional universe that is expanded not only by its original authors but also by the fandom. In this case, a strict definition of the true continuity or, at least, a hierarchy of continuities must be set, otherwise the expanded universe (see below) will contradict itself.
  • Expanded universe is the term to describe all the materials (including fanfiction) that were published outside the main story arcs, but were accepted as a part of the story (included into the canon).
  • Fanon is a fact or an event that was introduced by the fandom and then accepted into the canon because of its popularity among the readers/audience. A related term is fanwank.
• Multiverse is a concept (primarily in science fiction) that implies an existence of multiple parallel fictional universes. In fiction, the characters can travel between these worlds, thus, expanding the setting and the storyline infinitely.
  • Linking room is a concept in multiverse fiction that refers to an abstract space from which any of the existing fictional universes can be accessed. Linking rooms are often depicted as infinite rooms filled with doors.
• Back-story is the history of the world (or a part of the world) where the story takes place. A common plot device (especially in fantasy stories) is a dark secret hidden in the past whose true nature the characters are supposed to uncover. Every epic setting has its own back-story that makes it unique.
  • Incluing is a literary technique that is used to make the uncovering of the back-story less straightforward and more intriguing. Instead of telling it directly, the narrator (or the characters) constantly refers to various events, assuming that everyone knows what they are talking about. This kind of logical game often allows an inquisitive reader/viewer guess the true back-story before (or if not) it is revealed.
  • Retcon is a contraction of retroactive continuity. It is mostly used in episodic media and describes alteration of the back-story that contradicts the previously accepted vision of it. Sometimes it is used to fix continuity errors in the past.

A ficton is a fictional setting created by writing any fictional story or series of stories. ... A fictional universe is a cohesive imaginary world that serves as the setting or backdrop for one or (more commonly) multiple works of fiction. ... Science fiction is a form of speculative fiction principally dealing with the impact of imagined science and technology, or both, upon society and persons as individuals. ... Fantasy is a genre of art that uses magic and other supernatural forms as a primary element of plot, theme, or setting. ... A fantasy world is a type of fictional universe in which magic or other similar powers work. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Fandom (from the noun fan and the affix -dom, as in kingdom, dukedom, etc. ... Expanded Universe material (e. ... Fan fiction (also spelled fanfiction and commonly abbreviated to fanfic) is fiction written by people who enjoy a film, novel, television show or other media work, using the characters and situations developed in it and developing new plots in which to use these characters. ... Fanon is a fact or ongoing situation related to a television program, book, movie, or video game that has been used so much by fan writers or among the fandom that it has been more or less established as having happened in the fictional world, but it has not actually... Parallel universe or alternate reality in science fiction and fantasy is a self-contained separate reality coexisting with our own. ... A linking room is a concept in multiverse and metafiction stories. ... In narratology, a back-story (also back story or backstory) is the history behind the situation extant at the start of the main story. ... Incluing is a technique of world building, in which the reader is gradually exposed to background information about the world in which a story is set. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Setting techniques

• Fictional crossover is a popular technique when otherwise separated fictional characters, stories, settings, universes, or media meet and interact with each other. This can be used as a gimmick, a marketing tool, a joke or gag, or to play out a "what if" scenario.
  • Intercompany crossover is a fictional crossover (mostly, in episodic media) where a character (or group of characters) from one fictional universe meets a character from another.
• Shared universe is a (sometimes metafictional) technique in which several different authors share settings and characters which appear in their respective works of fiction, often referring to events taking place in the other writers' stories. Shared universes tend to appear more frequently in fantasy and science fiction than in other genres. (See also Expanded Universe.)
  • Metaseries is a term used in fan fiction to describe series of stories, which include references to each other and some overall similar chronological or cast backdrop, but are not similar enough to be considered direct sequels. Metaseries are often set in a shared universe.
• Floating timeline is a technique used mostly in comic books that allows the authors to abstract the timeline of their narrative from our own time, but retain (mostly non-canon) subtle references to it therein. Practically, this means that a story may appear to be set in a particular period of world history, but actually, happen at a completely different time. Such technique often causes confusion among the readers.
• Reboot is a technique used in episodic media to discard all previous continuity in the series and start anew. Effectively, all previously known history is set to null and the series starts over from the beginning.
• Reset button technique interrupts continuity in works of fiction. Simply put, use of a reset button device returns all characters and situations to the status quo they held before a major change of some sort was introduced. This is often used (e.g. when neither the reader nor the character know that they are, in fact, watching a dream) to let the audience/reader experience something that would otherwise damage the continuity or untimely end the story, for example, the death of a major character.

A fictional crossover occurs when two or more otherwise separated fictional characters, stories, settings, universes, or media meet and interact with each other. ... A gimmick is a unique or quirky special feature that makes something stand out from its contemporaries. ... Wikibooks has more about this subject: Marketing Marketing is a social and managerial function that attempts to create, expand and maintain a collection of customers. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... In comic books, an intercompany crossover (also called cross-company, or simply company crossover) is a comic or series of comics where a character (or group of characters) published by one company meets a character published by another (for example, DC Comics Superman meeting Marvels Spider-Man). ... A Shared universe is a literary technique in which several different authors share settings and characters which appear in their respective works of fiction, often referring to events taking place in the other writers stories. ... A metaseries includes series of stories which include references to each other and some overall similar chronological or cast backdrop, but are not similar enough to be considered direct sequels. ... A sequel is a work of fiction in literature, film, and other creative works that is produced after a completed work, and is set in the same universe but at a later time. ... A floating timeline (also known as a sliding timescale) is a device used in fiction, particularly by DC and Marvel Comics, to explain why characters created years or even decades ago, seem to have aged little or at all since their inception. ... A comic book is a magazine or book containing the art form of comics. ... Reboot, in series fiction, means to discard all previous continuity in the series and start anew. ... The reset button technique (based on the idea of status quo ante) is a plot device that interrupts continuity in works of fiction. ... Status Quo are an English rock band whose music is characterised by a strong boogie line. ...

Errors and gaps

Because no storyteller is perfect, sometimes errors and inconsistencies in the continuity appear. Some of them may even be deliberate and thus presented as a plot device, but overall they are frowned upon by the audience, readers and critics.

• Plot hole is a gap in the storyline when it goes against its own logic, contradicts itself or simply leaves unanswered questions. Plot gaps are always regarded as negative.
• Plot dump is a technique used when a lot of information necessary for understanding the story is given at once (typically in a dialogue between characters) instead of being gradually discovered by the reader. Such dumps are often regarded as unprofessional.
• Fanwank is an (often convoluted) explanation of continuity errors in a narrative by the audience or readers (fans). Another, less commonly used meaning is a form of fan service: the inclusion (by the author) of elements irrelevant to plot or characterization in an attempt to amuse fans of a genre (see also fanon).
• Sunnydale Syndrome is a common challenge to the suspension of disbelief when the minor characters who surround the major ones somehow fail to notice unusual and even paranormal things going right in front of them.
• Stormtrooper effect is a reference to the apparent incapability of minor characters (see also Redshirts) to seriously injure major ones even when having all advantages on their side. This effect is a consequence of over-using the character shields seen mostly in action movies and computer games.
• Soap Opera Rapid Aging Syndrome is a plot device typical for soap opera TV series when young characters are artificially aged at an unnatural pace to take the place of older characters who quit the show for some reason.
• Fonzie syndrome is phenomenon in episodic media (usually, sitcoms) when a minor character becomes the central and most popular character on the show.

A plot hole is a gap in a storyline that goes against the flow of logic set-up by the plot or that undermines the basic premises of the story. ... Plot dump or exposition is a term used by the movie and television industries to describe a plot device by which critical elements of the plot, often involving the back-story, are not depicted directly but are instead elaborated in dialogue by one of the characters or by a narrator. ... This article belongs in one or more categories. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Sunnydale In fiction fandom, Sunnydale Syndrome is a name given to the semi-common tendency of mundane characters to fail to notice, or to reject as unreal or impossible, the unusual activities taking place under their noses, even when blindingly obvious. ... Paranormal is an umbrella term used to describe a wide variety of reported anomalous phenomena. ... This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. ... This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ... Character shields are plot devices in films and television shows that prevent important characters from dying or being seriously injured at dramatically inconvenient moments. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... This article needs a complete rewrite for the reasons listed on the talk page. ... SORAS or Soap Opera Rapid Aging Syndrome (less commonly called simply rapid aging) is a fan term for when an infant or young child in a soap opera is aged very quickly by the writers. ... The first TIME cover devoted to soap operas: Dated January 12, 1976, Bill Hayes and Susan Seaforth Hayes of Days of our Lives are featured with the headline Soap Operas: Sex and suffering in the afternoon. A soap opera is an ongoing, episodic work of fiction, usually broadcast on television... Fonzie syndrome is a phenomenon on TV programs in which a character that had originally been a one-off character or a supporting cast member becomes a/the central and/or most popular character on the show. ... A sitcom or situation comedy is a genre of comedy performance originally devised for radio but today typically found on television. ...

Genres

Generally, a genre is a category of a particular form of art according to criteria particular to that form. In all art forms, genre boundaries are pretty vague. In narrative, the genres hierarchy is extremely complicated and hard to order by any means. For more information, see the articles about genre studies, genre fiction and literary genres. Look up genre in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Genre studies are a structuralist approach to literary criticism, film criticism, and other cultural criticism. ... Genre fiction is a term for fictional works (novels, short stories) written with the intent of fitting into a specific literary genre in order to appeal to the fans of that genre. ... A literary genre is one of the divisions of literature into genres according to particular criteria such as literary technique, tone, or subject matter (content). ...

Rhetoric

Generally, rhetoric is an art of persuasion through language, but it is also very often used in narrative - to draw the reader's attention to the text and to make the characters' conversations more realistic. Various rhetorical devices may be used in order to achieve the author's goals and make the audience/reader understand and accept the point that the author was trying to make. Rhetoric (from Greek , rhêtôr, orator, teacher) is the art or technique of persuasion, usually through the use of language. ... Persuasion is a form of influence. ... A rhetorical device is a technique, sometimes called a resource of language, used by an author or speaker to induce an emotional response. ...

External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:

Narratology

• The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism: Narratology by Gerald Prince
• Introduction to Narratology by Dino Felluga
• "Musical Narratology" by William Echard, review of A Theory of Musical Semiotics by Eero Tarasti, foreword by Thomas A. Sebeok.
• The Narrative Act: Wittgenstein and Narratology by Henry McDonald
• Story-Systems
• Narrative Theory bibliography (A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology)]
• Narratology: A Guide to the Theory of Narrative by Manfred Jahn
• Cause Effect Narrative - A Simple Explanation