A false vacuum is a metastable sector of a quantum field theory which appears to be a perturbative vacuum but is unstable to instanton effects which tunnel to a lower energy state. This tunneling can be caused by quantum fluctuations or the creation of high energy particles. Simply put, the false vacuum is a state of a physical theory which is not the lowest energy state, but is nonetheless stable for some time. This is analogous to metastability for first order phase transitions. Metastability is the ability of a non-equilibrium state to persist for a long period of time. ... Quantum field theory (QFT) is the application of quantum mechanics to fields. ... Perturbation theory comprises mathematical methods that are used to find an approximate solution to a problem which cannot be solved exactly, by starting from the exact solution of a related problem. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Quantum tunnelling (or tunneling) is the quantum-mechanical effect of transitioning through a classically-forbidden energy state. ... In physics, a phase transition is the transformation of a thermodynamic system from one phase to another. ...

A scalar field φ in a false vacuum. Note that the energy E is higher than that in the true vacuum or ground state, but there is a barrier preventing the field from classically rolling down to the true vacuum. Therefore, the transition to the true vacuum must be stimulated by the creation of high energy particles or through quantum mechanical tunneling.

Image File history File links Falsevacuum. ... Image File history File links Falsevacuum. ... In mathematics and physics, a scalar field associates a scalar to every point in space. ... In physics, the ground state of a quantum mechanical system is its lowest-energy state. ... Quantum tunneling is the quantum-mechanical effect of transitioning through a classically-forbidden energy state. ...

Bubble nucleation

In a physical theory in a false vacuum, the system moves to a lower energy state – either the true vacuum, or another, lower energy vacuum – through a process known as bubble nucleation.^[1] In this, instanton effects cause a bubble to appear in which fields have their true vacuum values inside. Therefore, the interior of the bubble has a lower energy. The walls of the bubble (aka domain walls) have a surface tension, as energy is expended as the fields roll over the potential barrier to the lower energy vacuum. The most likely size of the bubble is determined in the semiclassical approximation to be such that the bubble has zero total change in the energy: the decrease in energy by the true vacuum in the interior is compensated by the tension of the walls. Any increase in size of the bubble will decrease its potential energy, as the energy of the wall increases as the area of a sphere 4πr² but the negative contribution of the interior increases more quickly, as the volume of a sphere 4 / 3πr³. Therefore, after the bubble is nucleated, it quickly begins expanding at very nearly the speed of light. The excess energy contributes to the very large kinetic energy of the walls. If two bubbles are nucleated and they eventually collide, it is thought that particle production occurs where the walls collide. Bubbles in a soft drink each nucleate independently, responding to a decrease in pressure. ... A domain wall is a theoretical 2-dimensional singularity. ... In physics, surface tension is an effect within the surface layer of a liquid that causes that layer to behave as an elastic sheet. ... In physics, the adjective semiclassical has different precise meanings depending on the context. ...

The tunneling rate is increased by increasing the energy difference between the two vacua and decreased by increasing the height or width of the barrier.

Gravitational effects

The addition of gravity to the story leads to a considerably richer variety of phenomena. The key insight is that a false vacuum with positive potential energy density is a de Sitter vacuum, in which the potential energy acts as a cosmological constant and the universe is undergoing the exponential expansion of de Sitter space. This leads to a number of interesting effects, first studied by Coleman and de Luccia:^[2] The cosmological constant (usually denoted by the Greek capital letter lambda: Λ) was proposed by Albert Einstein as part of his theory of general relativity to achieve a stationary universe. ... In mathematics and physics, n-dimensional de Sitter space, denoted , is the maximally symmetric, simply-connected, Lorentzian manifold with constant positive curvature. ... Sidney Coleman at Harvard University Sidney Coleman is an eminent theoretical physicist. ...

1. Tunneling from a space with zero potential energy (e.g. Minkowski space) to negative potential energy: the walls of the bubble grow at the speed of light, as described above. However, the interior of the bubble rapidly collapses, as anti-de Sitter space and the universe ends (see ultimate fate of the universe and vacuum metastability event, below).
2. Tunneling from a space of positive potential energy (de Sitter space) to one of vanishing potential energy (Minkowski space). In this case, the volume of the bubble continues to grow at the speed of light. Since the exterior of the bubble is expanding exponentially, however, and the Minkowski space is not, unlike the non-gravitational case, the whole of space time need never be dominated by the lower energy vacuum. If the tunneling rate is slow enough, the exponentially expanding space in the false vacuum state can expand quickly enough that the bubbles of lower-energy space never begin to collide and convert all of space time to the lower energy state. That is, the tunneling is competing with rapid expansion, and the exponential expansion can be rapid enough that the tunneling effect is overwhelmed.
3. Tunneling from positive potential energy to lower, positive potential energy. Just as for the above case, the more rapid exponential expansion of the higher energy false vacuum can continue to dominate.
4. Tunneling from positive potential energy to negative potential energy. This effect is highly suppressed: the expansion of the positive energy vacuum dominates the contraction of the negative energy vacuum.

A final kind of tunneling is the Hawking-Moss instanton^[3]. This occurs when the size of the Coleman–de Luccia bubble is larger than the size of the universe, in a closed universe, or of the horizon. In this case, the entire universe tunnels from the false vacuum to the true vacuum at once. In physics and mathematics, Minkowski space (or Minkowski spacetime) is the mathematical setting in which Einsteins theory of special relativity is most conveniently formulated. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... The ultimate fate of our universe is a topic in physical cosmology. ... The shape of the Universe is an informal name for a subject of investigation within physical cosmology. ...

Alan Guth in his original proposal for cosmic inflation^[4] proposed that inflation could end through quantum mechanical bubble nucleation of the sort described above. It was soon understood that a homogeneous and isotropic universe could not be preserved through the violent tunneling process. This led Andrei Linde^[5] and, independently, Andreas Albrecht and Paul Steinhardt^[6] to propose "new inflation" or "slow roll inflation" in which no tunneling occurs, and the inflationary scalar field instead rolls down a gentle slope. A more recent application of these tunneling phenomena in cosmology and particle physics is the string landscape in which string theory is conjectured to be populated by an exponentially large "discretuum" of false vacua, and the small observed value of the cosmological constant (see dark energy) can be explained by the anthropic principle and quantum mechanical tunneling to the lowest positive energy vacuum. Alan Harvey Guth (born February 27, 1947) is a physicist and cosmologist. ... In physical cosmology, cosmic inflation is the idea that the nascent universe passed through a phase of exponential expansion that was driven by a negative-pressure vacuum energy density. ... Andrei Linde is an American physicist and professor of Physics at Californias Stanford University. ... Paul J. Steinhardt is the Albert Einstein Professor of Science at Princeton University and a professor of theoretical physics. ... The string landscape is an idea to implement the anthropic principle, in particular Steven Weinbergs proposal for anthropic selection of the vacuum density, in string theory. ... In physical cosmology, dark energy is a hypothetical form of energy that permeates all of space and has strong negative pressure. ... In physics and cosmology, the anthropic principle is an umbrella term for various dissimilar attempts to explain the structure of the universe by way of coincidentally balanced features that are necessary and relevant to the existence on Earth of biochemistry, carbon-based life, and eventually human beings to observe such...

Vacuum metastability event

In their paper, Coleman and de Luccia noted:

The possibility that we are living in a false vacuum has never been a cheering one to contemplate. Vacuum decay is the ultimate ecological catastrophe; in the new vacuum there are new constants of nature; after vacuum decay, not only is life as we know it impossible, so is chemistry as we know it. However, one could always draw stoic comfort from the possibility that perhaps in the course of time the new vacuum would sustain, if not life as we know it, at least some structures capable of knowing joy. This possibility has now been eliminated.^[2]

The possibility that we are living in a false vacuum has been considered. If a bubble of lower energy vacuum were nucleated, it would approach at nearly the speed of light and destroy the Earth instantaneously, without any forewarning. Thus, this vacuum metastability event is a theoretical doomsday event. This was used in a science-fiction story by Geoffrey A. Landis in 1988 ^[7]. Adjectives: Terrestrial, Terran, Telluric, Tellurian, Earthly Atmosphere Surface pressure: 101. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the hypocenter. ... Geoffrey A. Landis emerged in the late 1980s as one of the foremost scientist-writers in the science fiction genre. ...

One scenario is that, rather than quantum tunneling, a particle accelerator, which produces very high energies in a very small area, could create sufficiently high energy density as to penetrate the barrier and stimulate the decay of the false vacuum to the lower energy vacuum. Hut and Rees,^[8] however, have determined that because we had observed cosmic ray collisions at much higher energies than those produced in terrestrial particle accelerators, that these experiments will not, at least for the foreseeable future, pose a threat to our vacuum. Particle accelerations have reached energies of only approximately four thousand billion electron volts (4 ×10³ GeV). Cosmic ray collisions have been observed at and beyond energies of 10¹¹ GeV, the so-called Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin limit. John Leslie has argued^[9] that if present trends continue, particle accelerators will exceed the energy given off in cosmic ray collisions by the year 2150. A 1960s single stage 2 MeV linear Van de Graaff accelerator, here opened for maintenance A particle accelerator is a device that uses electric fields to propel electrically charged particles to high speeds and magnetic fields to contain them. ... Cosmic rays can loosely be defined as energetic particles originating outside of the Earth. ... An electronvolt (symbol: eV) is the amount of energy gained by a single unbound electron when it falls through an electrostatic potential difference of one volt. ... A GEV (or Ground Effect Vehicle) is vehicle that takes advantage of the aerodynamic principle of ground effect (or Wing-in-ground). ... The Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin limit (GZK limit) is a theoretical upper limit on the energy of cosmic rays from distant sources. ...

This event would be contingent on our living in a metastable vacuum, an issue which is far from resolved.^[10] Worries about the vacuum metastability event are reminiscent of the controversy about turning the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider on. The Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory. ...

See also

• Supercooling
• Superheating

Supercooling is the process of chilling a liquid below its freezing point, without it becoming solid. ... In physics, superheating (sometimes referred to as boiling retardation, boiling delay, or defervescence) is the phenomenon in which a liquid is heated to a temperature higher than its standard boiling point, without actually boiling. ...

References

Further reading

• Sidney Coleman (1988). Aspects of Symmetry: Selected Erice Lectures. 0521318270. ISBN 0-521-31827-0. 

External links

• An Eternity of Bubbles? by Alan Guth
• The Decay of the False Vacuum by Sten Odenwald